CHARACTERIZATION OF DESERT DATE (Balanites aegyptiaca)

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arabinose), and uronic acids (glucuronic, galacturonic) are the most common sugar residues in the saponin molecules that are attached at the C-3 position (monodesmosidic), and C-26 or C-28 (in bidesmosidic). Tri-desmosidic saponins (saponins having three sugar chains) are seldom found in nature (Hostettmann and Marston, 1995). The sugar moiety is linked to the aglycone through an ether or ester glycosidic linkage at one or two sites (Liu et al., 2003). The configuration of inter-glycosidic linkage is either α or β and the monosaccharide can be in the pyranose or furanose forms. Fig. 1.5. Aglycone skeletons of (A) steroidal spirostane, (B) steroidal furostane, and (C) triterpenoid saponins. R = sugar moiety (according to Sparg et al., 2004) Since the aglycone is very hydrophobic and the sugar chains are very hydrophilic, these characteristics provide saponin molecules with excellent foaming and emulsifying properties. The presence of both polar (sugar) and non-polar (steroid or tritepene) groups provides saponins with strong surface-active properties (Liener, 1994) that possess a strong foaming capacity in aqueous solutions. In aqueous solutions they form small micelles individually, and these hydrophobic micelles of triterpene or steroid groups stack together like small piles of coins (Kersten and Crommelin, 2003). Saponin molecules also form micelles with sterols, such as cholesterol and bile acids. The hydrophobic portion of the saponin (the aglycone or sapogenin) associates (lipophilic bonding) with the hydrophobic sterol molecules, in stacked micelle aggregation (Oakenfull and Sidhu, 1989). Indeed, it 7
should be no surprise that the name 'saponin' comes from the Latin word sapo meaning soap. Biological properties In plants, saponins are secondary metabolites. The term “secondary metabolites” indicates compounds that are not required for plant growth and development but presumed to function in communication or defense (Luckner, 1990). Although little is known about the influence of the biological activities of saponins on the growth of the plant itself, both inhibitory and stimulatory effects (allelopathic activities) of saponins have been reported in the literature (Hoagland et al., 1996). One of the earliest works on steroidal saponins reported that an optimal concentration of saponins doubled the growth of wheat embryo (Grunwald, 1974). It has also been reported that the saponins exhibit phytohormone-like activities (Mahmoud, 1996), and that pea saponin exerts a stimulatory effect on lettuce root growth but not on seed germination (Tsurumi and Tsujino, 1995). It is reported that saponin molecules that occur constitutively in healthy plants act as a barrier to infection and protect the plants against attack by a wide range of potential pathogens (Mansfield, 1983; Osbourn, 1996). For example, the well-known saponins avenacin A-1 from oat roots, α-tomatine from tomato, and α-chalonine from potato, are known to exhibit antifungal activities (Fig. 1.6) (Osbourn 1996; Morrissey and Osbourn 1999; Papadopoulou et al., 1999; Bouarab et al., 2002). The nature of the particular aglycone moieties and sugar constituents of a saponin dictates the way in which it will react with different living organisms, such as microbes, plants, and animals (Oleszek et al., 1999). Saponins are, for example, very toxic to cold-blooded organisms, but apparently not to mammals (Hall and Walker, 1991; Harborne and Baxter, 1993). Earlier studies have revealed that many saponins or saponin-rich extracts (SRE) from various plants showed antifungal activities (Oleszek et al., 1990; Hostettmann and Marston, 1995; Osbourn et al., 1996). Sindambiwe et al. (1998) have reported growth inhibition of Epidermaphyton flooccosum, Microides interdigitalis, and Trichophyton rubrum fungi by a saponin-rich extract of Maesa lanceolata. Many saponins have also been found to have an inhibitory effect against Candida albicans, Crytococus neoformans, and Aspergillus fumigatus (Li et al., 1999). Similarly, saponins from Chenopodium quinoa, Capsicum 8
Page 1 and 2: CHARACTERIZATION OF DESERT DATE (Ba
Page 3 and 4: This work was carried out under the
Page 5 and 6: Abstract The desert date (Balanites
Page 7 and 8: of various Balanites tissues sugges
Page 9 and 10: Contents Acknowledgements i Abstrac
Page 11 and 12: Materials and methods 38 - Sample c
Page 13 and 14: - Effect of the saponin source on p
Page 15 and 16: Figure 2.9 1 H NMR spectrum showing
Page 17 and 18: List of Tables Table 2.1 Major HPLC
Page 19 and 20: Glossary CID collision induced diss
Page 21 and 22: Thesis organization This thesis is
Page 23 and 24: fruits have been found in Pharaohs'
Page 25 and 26: Fig 1.3. Map showing the Balanites
Page 27: themselves provide shade and shelte
Page 31 and 32: Association with membranes Most bio
Page 33 and 34: the African or Indian samples. No w
Page 35 and 36: Objective and Hypothesis Objectives
Page 37 and 38: CHAPTER 2 Characterization of the f
Page 39 and 40: Extraction and separation For the e
Page 41 and 42: and analysed with an ELS detector (
Page 43 and 44: c d a Figure 2.2. Electrospray mass
Page 45 and 46: corresponds with the claims of earl
Page 47 and 48: Table 2.2. MS n Electrospray mass s
Page 49 and 50: 1209, and could be isomers of these
Page 51 and 52: compound as 26-(O-β-D-glucopyranos
Page 53 and 54: In the 1 H NMR spectrum, resonances
Page 55 and 56: Figure 2.11. Structure of the sapon
Page 57 and 58: Conclusions From this study we can
Page 59 and 60: that a study of the saponin profile
Page 61 and 62: HPLC pump and a refractive index (R
Page 63 and 64: Table 3.1 Peaks, retention time, am
Page 65 and 66: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Figure 3.2 ESI-
Page 67 and 68: Table 3.2 The LC-ESI-MS and corresp
Page 69 and 70: quoted here also are integers obtai
Page 71 and 72: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (i) Fig
Page 73 and 74: considered cleavage behavior, from
Page 75 and 76: Table 3.4 The LC-ESI-MS and corresp
Page 77 and 78: The results of this study also show
Page 79 and 80:
ich extracts of Agave sisalana (Piz
Page 81 and 82:
food preparation based on baby food
Page 83 and 84:
Table 4.3 LC50 and LC90 (ppm) of sa
Page 85 and 86:
1 2 3 Figure 4.1 Structure of the t
Page 87 and 88:
When the images of dead larvae were
Page 89 and 90:
CHAPTER 5 Antifungal activity of sa
Page 91 and 92:
visually and microscopically, and s
Page 93 and 94:
Effects of the SREs on in vitro gro
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Table 5.2 Effect of saponin rich ex
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(Table 5.3). In the case of C. cocc
Page 99 and 100:
CHAPTER 6 Effect of saponins on del
Page 101 and 102:
astomatous cuticles from the upper
Page 103 and 104:
Results Effect of the saponin sourc
Page 105 and 106:
Effect of humidity and temperature
Page 107 and 108:
Table 6.3 Effect of humidity and te
Page 109 and 110:
Discussion and conclusions Agro-mat
Page 111 and 112:
solutions used in our studies has s
Page 113 and 114:
CHAPTER 7 General conclusions and s
Page 115 and 116:
as a delivery adjuvant, not only in
Page 117 and 118:
Botanic Gardens, Kew. 960 pp. Bushw
Page 119 and 120:
Ganzera, M., Bedir, E., Khan ,I.A.
Page 121 and 122:
Keukens, E.A.J., de Vrije, T., van
Page 123 and 124:
Morrissey, J.P., Osbourn, A.E. (199
Page 125 and 126:
Schonherr, J., Riederer, M. (1986).
Page 127 and 128:
Appendices A1 - A4: Articles publis
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new and alternative sources of thes
Page 131 and 132:
first dissolved in 1 ml methanol an
Page 133 and 134:
In Table 1, the total sapogenin as
Page 135 and 136:
114 5. Beneytout JL, Nappez C, Lebo
Page 137 and 138:
Appendix: A2 Natural Product Commun
Page 139 and 140:
min, and finally rinsed three times
Page 141 and 142:
level was significantly increased f
Page 143 and 144:
Table1. Effect of plant growth regu
Page 145 and 146:
A B C D Fig 1. Different callus typ
Page 147 and 148:
Appendix: A3 African Journal of Bio
Page 149 and 150:
The data obtained were statisticall
Page 151 and 152:
Table 4. Mortality of Culex pipiens
Page 153 and 154:
Appendix: A4 Dengue Bulletin 2005;
Page 155 and 156:
of the Institutes for Applied Resea
Page 157 and 158:
References 136 1. Halstead SB. Glob
Page 159 and 160:
112 H20a-H21-H23b-H24bb 23a 31.5 1.
Page 161 and 162:
112.0 H15 β -H17a-H20a-H21 23a 31.
Page 163 and 164:
112 H20b-H24aa-H24bb 23a 31.4 1.64
Page 165 and 166:
םהיתויוליעפו םהיתו
Page 167 and 168:
. םיינגוזה םורדו תח
Page 169 and 170:
םוקאזה ישרושב ירקי
Page 171:
םיטביה לש הנבהה היי
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CHARACTERIZATION OF DESERT DATE (Balanites aegyptiaca)

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