Occupation and cancer - European Trade Union Institute (ETUI)

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Acta Oncol Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by 212.35.100.66 on 04/06/11 For personal use only. Tons 20 15 10 5 0 Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden Figure 3. CO 2 emission in tons per capita in the Nordic countries in 2004 [20]. entirely upon hydropower resources for its production of electricity. Nuclear power is Sweden’s most important source of energy, in Finland it provides 18% of the energy supply. With their oil fields in the North Sea, Denmark and especially Norway have a very large production of oil and gas [13]. Iron mining has been important in Sweden and to a lesser extent in Norway, where on the other hand, the cheap supply of energy has formed the basis for, e.g., the smelting of aluminium, both in Norway [1] and in Iceland. In agreement with the Kyoto Protocol, EU nations have agreed to cut the emission of carbon dioxide to 8% below the level in 1990. Emission of carbon dioxide varies across the Nordic countries (Figure 3) [20]. In Denmark, Finland and Norway, the emission of greenhouse-gases in 2003 was still 7 8% above the 1990 level while the emission was lower in Sweden and especially in Iceland [13]. Living conditions The gross domestic product has increased in all Nordic countries and is among the highest in the world. The population of the Nordic countries is now largely urbanised. The share of one- and two-family houses out of the entire building stock is highest in Denmark (almost 60%) and A˚ land (almost 70%), lowest in Sweden with 45%. Norway and Iceland have the highest percentage of large dwellings with five rooms or more plus kitchen [13]. Private ownership of dwellings is common. In 1970 Sweden had the highest number per capita of cars (0.31), telephones (0.58) and televisions (0.32) in the Nordic countries. In Finland the numbers were only 0.19; 0.30 and 0.24 [21]. In 2005 Iceland had the highest density of private cars with 0.60 cars per capita, followed by Sweden with Occupation and cancer in Nordic countries 651 0.46, Finland 0.45, Norway 0.43, and Denmark 0.35 per capita [13]. Along with the Netherlands, the Nordic countries rank with the highest digital literacy as reflected by the percentage of individuals aged 16 to 74 using the internet regularly [22]. The proportion of households in 2005 with access to internet was 75% in Denmark, 54% in Finland, 84% in Iceland, 64% in Norway, and 73% in Sweden [14]. The Nordic populations were the first ones to adapt large scale use of mobile phones. Food consumption Across the Nordic countries, there were important differences in the average consumption of the main food components in 1970 [23]. The average milk consumption in Finland was 263 kg per person per year whereas the consumption in the other countries varied from 172 to 193 kg per person. Denmark had a high consumption of meat and offals with 84 kg per person, or close to a quarter of a kilogram per person per day. The consumption of meat and offals in the other countries was between 43 and 56 kg per person. Fish consumption was highest in Norway (40 kg per person) and lowest in Finland (13 kg per person). The consumption of vegetables, fruit and berries in Sweden in 1970 was 122 kg per person, twice as much as in Finland, with the consumption in Denmark and Norway being in between. In parallel with the economic development, dietary habits have changed in all Nordic countries. The consumption of fat and sugar has increased, while the consumption of food items rich in carbohydrate has decreased [24]. The consumption of low-fat milk and margarine has increased, while the total fat consumption has decreased. There has been a gradual increase in the consumption of fruit and vegetables in all countries. Consumption of potatoes was high in all countries in 1970, ranging from 73 to 89 kg per person [23]. Except for in Sweden, consumption of potatoes has decreased in later decades [24]. Until the 1980s meat consumption increased, but has, except for in Denmark, been stable since then. The lowest consumption of meat has continuously been in Norway, where in 1990 the mean intake per inhabitant was 54 kg, and highest in Denmark, with 105 kg per inhabitant (Table 2) [25]. Overall dietary fat intake has decreased in Finland, Norway, and Sweden, but not in Denmark [24]. In 2005, Denmark was the Nordic record holder of the consumption of beef and veal (28 kg per person in 1970) pork (58 kg), poultry (23 kg), and cheese (24 kg) [13]. Consumption of lamb and sheep was the highest in Iceland (23 kg per person). Icelanders and Norwegians consumed by far more
Acta Oncol Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by 212.35.100.66 on 04/06/11 For personal use only. 652 E. Pukkala et al. Table 2. Food consumption (kg per person) in 1990 in the Nordic countries [25]. Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden Flour 75 78 . 79 69 Potatoes (1) 65 64 50 70 84 Vegetables, crucif 69 (2,3) 54 31 54 54 Fruit, berries, nuts 54 91 38 79 94 Meat 105 67 71 54 61 Egg 14 11 11 11 13 Milk 121 178 191 172 129 Cheese 15 13 10 13 17 Butter 9 8 5 3 5 Margarine (4) 15 8 . 12 11 Sugar, honey 37 35 55 41 43 . Numbers are missing. (1) Potato products have been counted as fresh potatoes. (2) Numbers from 1985. (3) Excluding marmalade, juice, dried fruits. (4) Including light margarine calculated at 80% fat. fish than the other Nordic people, while the Icelanders accounted for the lowest consumption of vegetables. Alcohol consumption The average consumption of alcohol has varied over time and between countries (Figure 4) [26]. A general increase has been seen in all countries except Denmark in the later years. The proportion of abstainers among adult men in 1985 ranged from 3% in Denmark to 23% in Sweden, whereas the proportions of abstainers Litres 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1967 1969 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 Year Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden Figure 4. Alcohol consumption in litres of pure alcohol in the Nordic countries [26]. % % 100 80 60 40 20 0 100 80 60 40 20 0 Men 1965 1985 1965 1985 1965 1985 1965 1985 1965 1985 Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden Abstainers Light 80 g/day Women 1965 1985 1965 1985 1965 1985 1965 1985 1965 1985 Denmark Finland Iceland Norway Sweden Abstainers Light 80 g/day Figure 5. Drinking habits in 1965 and 1985 in the Nordic countries. By gender [27]. among adult women ranged from 7% in Denmark to 37% in Sweden [27] (Figure 5). Tobacco use Tobacco consumption in Denmark was higher than in the other Nordic countries already in 1920 [28]. In 1970 on average 68% of men and 47% of women in Denmark were smokers [29]. The numbers were 54% for men and 37% for women in Norway in 1973 1977 [30]. In Sweden, about 56% of men smoked in 1968, whereas the proportion of smokers in women varied from 46% in the 15 24 years old to 17% in the 55 64 years old [31]. In Finland, practically all tobacco consumption until the early 1960s was attributable to men; thereafter the prevalence of smokers among men was halved to about 30% and among women increased to about 30% [32]. Smoking has decreased in all Nordic countries during the last decades (Figure 6) but direct comparison between the Nordic countries is somewhat difficult as the age-span in the official statistics
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Occupation and cancer - European Trade Union Institute (ETUI)

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