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30 The debate was conducted in a major online film BBS forum in China, www.xici.net, and prompted about 350 threads. In a sense, this sort of informal debate in film circles echoes a larger and more scholarly debate in poetry: the polemic between intellectual writing (zhishifenzi xiezuo) and popular writing (minjian xiezuo) in the years 1998–2000. For a detailed analysis of the Intellectual-Popular polemic in Chinese poetry, see van Crevel (2006, forthcoming). are three major channels for underground film distribution in China: sales and circulation of pirated VCDs or DVDs—the most common channel— Internet downloads, and screenings in bars or universities organized by “unofficial film clubs” (minjian guanying zuzhi) in major cities. Yu is also quick to point out that underground films are still “invisible” in the sense that they are not screened on film in cinemas, although watching these films in the form of videos has become a noticeable part of urban youth subculture. The interest in these films culminated in a heated online debate, ignited by conflicting comments about Wang Chao’s Orphan of Anyang, in film critic circles in the summer of 2002. The debate included discussion on the mentality of intellectuals and the authenticity of mimicry and representation of subaltern lives, regional differences between the director’s origin and the film location, and the politics of films. 30 As film critic Hao Jian asserts in a different context, What is most interesting is that these filmmakers are able to augment their own cultural and economical status by shooting subalterns. It would be challenging, perplexing, and paradoxical to examine how these “migrant worker type of filmmakers,” taking advantage of both domestic film systems and international cultural operation modes, become cultural aristocrats and celebrities traveling around the world, providers of cultural productions to the white collar class, or filler in the glossy coffeetable magazines such as Trends Magazines, Avant-Garde Today, and Popular Music: Rock ’n Roll edition. (2005: 133) 31 As noted, the two leads’ speeches are full of expletives, which may convey masculinity or draw attention to their violent, nasty, and filthy environment. Still, to this anonymous poster, the uncensored words seem to be the language of the underclass city dweller, not of the rural peasant. See http://wjl. cn/bbs/simple/index.php?t15241.html, posted on 09/27/2005. Even a cursory review of these recent underground films would reveal problems of authenticity in the use of local languages, much like those encountered in Jia Zhangke’s films. Consider Blind Shaft: the two male leads play peasant murderers but speak the urbanized Mandarin varieties of the Henan cities of Zhengzhou and Kaifeng. As a viewer from Henan has commented, their city-bred accents are inappropriate for rural characters. 31 Similarly, in Orphan of Anyang, although both the film title and the 194 • The Rhetoric of Local Languages MCLC 18.2.indd 194 12/20/06 2:01:40 PM
script suggest that the story is set in Anyang, the actual shooting locale is Kaifeng, and the male lead playing the laid-off worker speaks Kaifeng Mandarin. In Fish and Elephant, the elephant keeper speaks a strong southern-accented Mandarin, and her mother speaks Shandong Mandarin. In The Only Sons, the uneducated Cantonese peasant Ah Shui, played by the Henan-native director himself, speaks a quite unnaturally pronounced, schooled language. Typical of these directors’ dismissive responses to such criticisms is that as long as the audience cannot tell, the actual accent does not matter. 32 Obviously, without subtitles, the local-language dialogues would be unintelligible to most Chinese as well as to non-Chinese audiences. And for young underground filmmakers, the international film circuits, where subtitles must be added, are the primary place to seek recognition and distribution. Without exception, the previously mentioned films in local languages received a succession of awards in international film festivals. Take Jia Zhangke as an example: his Hometown Trilogy has won him numerous big-name international film awards, including a Palme d’Or nomination in the 55th Cannes Film Festival for Unknown Pleasures, Best Asian Film Award in the 57th Venice Film Festival for Platform, and Wolfgang Staudte Award in the 48th Berlin Film Festival for Xiao Wu. 33 Seemingly, the documentary filmmaking style appeals to the aspiring, firsttime filmmakers not only because of its feasibility in a low-budget setting, but also because of its potential to attract cultural, social, and economic capital. 34 In this sense, the use of local languages is often criticized as a component of a “formula of success,” a term Barmé (1999: 194–198) uses to criticize Zhang Yuan. In a widely circulated online article, “Filmmaking Guide for Underground Films,” Zhang Xiaobei (2004) notes satirically that an actor’s ability to speak the desired local dialect is an underground director’s only screening requirement. Chinese subtitles can be omitted because of budget constraints, but employing a skillful English translator is paramount to a film’s success. As Sheldon Lu writes with regard to the New Chinese Cinema represented by Chen Kaige and Zhang Yimou, the Chinese 32 Personal communication with the director, Gan Xiao’er, summer 2004. 33 Jia’s most prestigious award so far was given for Sanxia haoren (Still life, 2006), which won the Golden Lion in the 63rd Venice Film Festival in September 2006. 34 Jia Zhangke clearly sets a model for other filmmakers. The award-winning Xiao Shan Going Home debuted in a Hong Kong film festival and earned him funding for Xiao Wu. This lowbudget film (RMB 300,000; US$37,500) in turn brought in profits from the sale of distribution rights to overseas countries. The market success of Xiao Wu then financed his later, higher-budget projects. Platform, which cost RMB 5,000,000 (US$625,000), is a transnational production backed by investors from Hong Kong, France, Japan, Switzerland, and China. Modern Chinese Literature and Culture • 195 MCLC 18.2.indd 195 12/20/06 2:01:40 PM
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Page 37 and 38: Haixian 海鲜 (Seafood). Dir. Zhu
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Page 41 and 42: Lee, Kevin. 2003. “Jia Zhangke.
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