Snow Leopard Survival Strategy - Panthera

on sheep in the French Jura Mountains. Biological
Conservation 101:15-22.
The selective removal of carnivores from local areas is
sometimes proposed to reduce the number of attacks on
livestock. For the lynx, neither the existence of problem
individuals nor the efficacy of their selective removal has
been demonstrated. In France, from 1989 to 1999, eight
lynx and two large carnivores thought to be lynx were
legally removed from high conflict areas by trapping
(n=7), shooting (n=1) or poisoning with toxic collars
on sheep (n=2). The efficacy of the 10 removals was
assessed on the farms where a lynx was caught and in
the 5-km-radius areas encompassing both these farms
and nearby sheep farms. The sex-ratio of captured lynx
was seven males : one female. On four farms and in six
5-km- radius areas lynx attacks on sheep reappeared
within 40 days after lynx removal, but we observed a
significant decrease in the overall number of attacks. In
the medium-term (48-365 days), the number of attacks
decreased on two farms and in four 5-km radius areas
when compared with the number observed in control
plots > 10 km away from the removal sites. In the longterm,
attacks reappeared on the same sites indicating a
“site” effect. In such situations, selective removals may
only temporarily reduce the problem of concentrated
lynx damage. The only way to obtain a durable effect is
to improve shepherding techniques.
Stander, P. E., P. J. Haden, Kaqece and Ghau. 1997. The
ecology of asociality in Namibian leopards. Journal of
Zoology 242:343-364.
Data on the ecology of leopards (Panthera pardus) from
north- eastern Namibia are presented and discussed
in terms of the possible costs and benefits of solitary
behaviour. In an area of low leopard density, where
individuals lived alone, both males and females occupied
large home ranges, (male = 210-1164 km 2 ; female = 183-
194 km 2 ). Despite resource and reproductive advantages
in maintaining exclusive ranges, the degree of range
overlap both between and within sexes was substantial.
Average overlap between males was 46% and between
females 35%. The cost of dispersal appeared high as
all three marked sub-adults died, and most recorded
mortalities were of sub-adults. Females with dependent
young showed a significant increase in per capita food
intake compared to single females and males. Higher
foraging success by females with cubs was revealed
through two energy expenditure parameters (kg/km
travelled/day and kg/hunt/day). Differential food intake
between females with cubs, single females and males can
be explained partly by differences in day ranges, body
size and costs of parental care. Females shared 27% of
their food with cubs and the costs of sharing food does
not appear as high as previously suggested. Inter-specific
competition over food and the defence of carcasses is
suggested as an important cost to group living. Leopard
kills were visited by other large carnivores (12%) but
food loss was minimal (2%). Leopards successfully
avoided conflict with inter-specific competitors by
dragging and hiding kills in thick vegetation. We argue
that solitary and secretive behaviour enables leopards to
avoid the costs of defending carcasses against larger and
gregarious carnivores.
Stander, P. E., Kaqece, Nisa, T. Dabe and D. Dabe. 2001.
Non-consumptive utilisation of leopards: community
conservation and ecotourism in practice. Pages 50-57
in J. van Heerden, editor Proceedings of a Symposium
on Lions and Leopards as Game Ranch Animals.
Widlife Group, South African Veterinary Association,
Onderstepoort, South Africa.
In north-eastern Namibia approximately 856 Ju/Hoan
San make a sparse existence from a mixture of hunting,
gathering and small scale livestock farming. The San
community share their land with a wide range of wildlife
species including leopards. Large carnivores are seen as
a nuisance since they kill livestock. Cattle, especially
calves, horses, chickens and domestic dogs fall prey
to these carnivores, to give an annual financial loss of
N$257 per village. Leopards are responsible for losses
amounting to N$55 per village per year. Some leopards
(N=12) were translocated after killing livestock. The
San community was involved in finding solutions to
the human wildlife conflict by, firstly, quantifying their
traditional knowledge and skills, such as tracking, as
scientifically measurable criteria. Secondly, these skills
were employed in studying the ecology of the leopards
and in developing an ecotourism product. This product,
tested vigorously for feasibility and reliability, proved
highly successful as the community generated funds
that exceeded their annual losses to large carnivore
predation by several fold. The success of the ecotourism
enterprise depended on a collaborative effort between the
Ju/Hoan community, the tourism industry and the local
conservation authorities.
Steinel A., C.R. Parrish, M.E. Bloom and U. Truyen.
2001. Parvovirus infections in wild carnivores.
Journal of Wildlife Diseases 37:594-607.
Various parvoviruses infect carnivores and can cause
disease. In this review article the knowledge about
infections of free- ranging or captive carnivores with
the feline parvoviruses, feline panleukopenia virus, and
canine parvovirus, including the. antigenic types CPV-
2a and -2b, as well as Aleutian disease of mink virus
and minute virus of canines are summarized. Particular
emphasis is placed on description of the evolution of
canine parvo-virus which apparent ly involved wild
carnivore hosts.
Sunde, P. and T. Kvam. 1997. Diet patterns of
Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx: What causes sexually
determined prey size segregation? Acta Theriologica
42(2):189-201.
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