findings by bioregion - Victorian Environmental Assessment Council

Biogeographical regions or bioregions are large,geographically distinct areas of land characterised bylandscape-scale natural features and environmentalprocesses that infl uence the function of entire ecosystems.Bioregions are delineated by physical characteristicssuch as geology, natural landforms, and climate, whichare correlated to ecological features, plant and animalassemblages and landscape-scale ecosystem processes.Twenty-eight Victorian bioregions nest within the nationalcategorisation for terrestrial environments under theInterim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia (IBRA)and in the Victorian Biodiversity Strategy. Bioregionsprovide a useful means to report on underlying complexpatterns of biodiversity for regional-scale conservationplanning (fi gure 5.1).This section provides native vegetation statistics, highlightskey fi ndings for each Victorian bioregion and briefl ydescribes the major post-European land use activities thathave shaped the fragmentation patterns of vegetation inindividual bioregions.• Bridgewater• Central Victorian Uplands• Dundas Tablelands• East Gippsland Lowlands• East Gippsland Uplands• Gippsland Plain• Glenelg Plain• Goldfi elds• Greater Grampian• Highlands – Far East• Highlands – Northern Fall• Highlands – Southern Fall• Lowan Mallee• Monaro Tablelands• Murray Fans• Murray Mallee• Murray Scroll Belt• Northern Inland Slopes• Otway Plain• Otway Ranges• Robinvale Plains• Strzelecki Ranges• Victorian Apls• Victorian Riverina• Victorian Volcanic Plain• Warrnambool Plain• Wilsons Promontory• WimmeraFigure 5.1Victorian bioregionsSource: DSE 2010 458

5.2 Site conditionand landscapecontext scoresThe unique assemblage of biophysical attributes of eachVictorian bioregion has resulted in different historicalpatterns of land use, and hence the extent and patternof vegetation clearance. The extent of native vegetationindicates how much of the bioregion has been cleared,and the site condition and landscape context scoresprovide information on the quality and spatial confi gurationof remaining vegetation within the fragmented landscapein individual bioregions.Bioregions may have the same extent of clearedvegetation but differences in the pattern of clearance,which is infl uenced by landscape features and land use,which will in turn infl uence landscape context and sitecondition scores of remnant vegetation. A bioregionor landscape consisting of a high proportion of smallunconnected remnants will have a correspondingly highproportion of native vegetation subject to edge effects andis likely to have low site condition and landscape contextscores. Bioregions that are heavily cleared, but contain afew large, high quality remnants, are likely to score betterfor site condition and landscape context.5.3 Conservation reservesThe most cleared bioregions have little, if any, area oflargely-intact landscapes and the lowest proportions ofnative vegetation represented in the conservation reservesystem. Several of the moderately cleared bioregionshave a signifi cant proportion of their area within largelyintactlandscapes. However, outside the largely-intactlandscape, these bioregions (with the exception of theLowan Mallee) generally have a low proportion of nativevegetation in conservation reserves. The remainingbioregions either have a large proportion of the bioregionconsisting of largely-intact landscapes or a signifi cantproportion of remnant native vegetation outside largelyintactlandscapes in conservation reserves.Several Victorian bioregions are traversed by many riversystems. Native vegetation of linear confi guration in theform of river and stream systems (or extensive areasof vegetated road reserves) will contribute to higherlandscape context scores, but the high edge to patch sizeratio of linear features will contribute to relatively poor sitecondition scores.60

5.4 Land use5.4.1 ABORIGINAL LAND USEIndigenous people have been custodians of Australia forat least 50,000 years. Most areas within Victoria havesupported and nurtured Aboriginal people. Resourcesobtained from the land include plants, animals, water,minerals and stone. These resources were used to sustaina lifestyle that serviced basic needs and supported a richcultural life with jewellery, ornaments, transport, mythology,art and craft. 63 These connections remain important toAboriginal people today.Understanding the physical environment and managingnatural resources formed an integral part of the patternsof everyday living for Aboriginal people. Accumulatedknowledge gathered over hundred of generations aboutspecifi c foods, weather conditions and seasonal patternsplayed an important role in infl uencing how Aboriginalpeople lived and moved in the landscape. Signifi cantforward planning and forethought was given to what plantand other foodstocks and natural resources would beavailable in each location at different times of the year.The use of fi re to increase local food abundance is anoften cited example of how Aboriginal people activelymanaged the landscape.Aboriginal people continue to live throughout Victoria,often with strong ties to their original clan and tribalareas. They continue to have a strong desire to beinvolved in an active and formal way in all areas of naturalresource management.The Land and Biodiversity White Paper has noted that,in the 200 years since European settlement of Australia,the landscape in the area now known as Victoria hasbeen transformed, often to the detriment of ecosystemsand biodiversity.5.4.2 EUROPEAN LAND USEPermanent settlement by Europeans in Victoriacommenced in the Port Phillip and Portland districtsduring the 1830s. The fi rst permanent settlers were theHenty brothers, who established a grazing industry in thePortland Bay area in 1834. A wave of squatters to thePort Phillip District and inland Victoria followed explorerssuch as Charles Sturt, Hamilton Hume, William Hovell andMajor Thomas Mitchell who acclaimed and promoted theabundant natural pastures in the country they crossed.The advance of pastoralism was rapid, especially in theyears 1838-40 after the offi cial opening of the Port PhilipDistrict in 1836, and continued until the 1880s. From the1860s, a series of selection and settlement acts wereintroduced. These acts aimed to settle a class of yeomenfarmers on small holdings, although frequently withoutsuccess. From the 1860s until the 1960s agriculturalintensity increased rapidly across Victoria aided by newtechnologies including the stump-jump plough thatenabled cultivation of soils that still contained stumps. Inthe fi rst three decades of the 20th century, the stumpjumpplough and the mallee roller helped clear largetracts of mallee for broadacre dryland farming. Otherdevelopments such as introduction of subterranean clover,super-phosphate fertiliser, herbicides and insecticides,along with irrigation and soldier settlement schemes andincentives, further aided the expansion and intensifi cationof agriculture.Mining is another major activity that has resulted in majorlandscape modifi cation in Victoria. Alluvial gold wasfi rst discovered in areas around Ballarat, Clunes andWarrandyte in 1851. The Mount Alexander goldfi elds(taking in the goldfi elds of Castlemaine and Bendigo) wereamong the world’s largest and the impact of gold miningon these natural landscapes was devastating. Vegetationwas cleared and the upper layer of soil turned over. Creeksand rivers were polluted, silted and riverbanks eroded andremoved. Provincial cities around the goldfi elds grew witha wave of immigrants, bringing railways, roads, buildingsand businesses. During this era, Melbourne was one ofthe world’s wealthiest and fastest growing cities.Landscape modifi cation continues as urban areas expand,agricultural land is sub-divided for lifestyle properties, andagricultural land uses change in response to economicfactors and climate change. In recent decades, theexpansion of Melbourne and provincial town boundarieshas impacted on semi-rural landscapes. Recent trendsin agricultural land use in Victoria include the formation offewer, larger farms, intensifi cation of agricultural activities,the expansion of tree plantations and centre-pivot andtravelling irrigators, diversifi cation of agricultural produceby single farms, and broad shifts in the types of agriculturesuch as from sheep grazing to cereal cropping. 645.5 BioregionalsummariesThe bioregional summaries are presented in the followingorder: from the most cleared bioregions, of most relevanceto the investigation, to the least cleared bioregions.61

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land12,000• Private land9,0006,0003,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 36.7Private land median score – 27.5[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land40,000• Private land30,00020,00010,000BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Victorian Volcanic Plain bioregion is characterised byextensive areas of fl at to undulating basalt plains formedfrom volcanic lava fl ows and ash. Stony rises, numerousold eruption points, extinct craters and shallow lakes arescattered throughout the bioregion. The soils are variablesupporting a variety of vegetation communities. The lowplains support Stony Knoll Shrubland, Plains GrassyWoodland, Plains Grassy Wetland ecosystems. The stonyrises support Stony Rises Herb-rich Woodland, BasaltShrubby Woodland and Herb-rich Foothill Forest EVCs.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 500-800 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-15˚CLAND USE HISTORYThe relatively fl at terrain, fertile soils, reliable rainfall andthe lack of trees made the region attractive to farmersfor grazing livestock – particularly sheep grazing forwool, which continues to the present day. Urbanisationin the eastern fringe of the bioregion (southwest ofMelbourne) has increased signifi cantly in recent decadesencroaching on the once extensive grassy plains. As oneof the earliest settled areas of Victoria, and recognised asquality agricultural land, few areas of public land remain.Consequently vegetation in remnants, parks and reservesare generally small and scattered.00 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.2Private land median score – 6.1[Statewide median score – 14.9]63

WIMMERAKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 2,011,321 ha• Largely-intact landscape 251 ha – less than 1%• Fragmented landscape 2,011,069 ha – ~100%1.5%4.6%83.1%10.8%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 340,045 ha – 16.9%• On public land [total] 123,026 ha – 6.1%In conservation reserves 30,525 ha – 1.5%In other public land categories 92,501 ha – 4.6%• On private land 217,019 ha – 10.8%• Not native vegetation 1,671,024 ha – 83.1%The Wimmera is one of the state’s largest bioregionsand the second most heavily cleared. A small proportion(16.9%) of the original extent of native vegetation remainsin the fragmented landscape. Most remaining nativevegetation occurs on private land and is generally inpoorer condition than that on public land. About one thirdof the remaining native vegetation is on public land andabout 20% of that is on roadsides. The site condition ofroadside vegetation is generally comparable to that ofprivate land. A very small proportion of the bioregion isrepresented in the conservation reserve system (1.5%).A signifi cantly greater proportion of the total area of smallto medium size patches (0-500 ha) is found on privateland compared to public land. The proportion by area ofthe largest patches (500-1,000+ ha) for both public andprivate land is similar.The extent and pattern of clearing varies according tosoil fertility, resulting two distinctively different zone. Theeastern, central and northwest Wimmera are the mostheavily cleared areas, with native vegetation occurringalmost exclusively as roadside or fragmented remnants.In these relictual landscapes, large paddocks have beencomprehensively cleared for broadacre cropping. In theseareas the more substantial – but still relatively small –remnants on public and private land are associated withriparian zones (e.g. Yarriambiak Creek and RichardsonRiver), and Lake Buloke and its nearby lunettes. Generallythe condition of vegetation is poor.In the southwest of the bioregion, moderate to largesizedremnants associated with ancient beach ridgesremain, leading to a landscape that would by classifi edas ‘fragmented’ under the McIntyre and Hobbs (1999)framework. The interspersed clay pans, which are moresuitable for agriculture, have been cleared in a variegatedor fragmented pattern, depending on the extent of theclay pans and sandy dunes. Many small fragments, whichgenerally do not occur in the central and eastern partof the bioregion, are dispersed between the ridges. Sitecondition of native vegetation within the southwest of thebioregion is moderate to good. Some of these patchesare extensive in size with relatively good connectivity. Inthe northwest of the bioregion (north of the Little Desert),the ancient beach ridges are more heavily cleared withpoorer connectivity.The fi nger of the bioregion fl anking the eastern side ofthe Greater Grampians bioregion (i.e. between Stawelland Halls Gap) has a variegated clearance pattern. Thislandscape contains some reasonably connected remnantsthough the site condition of these remnants is mixed. Thehighly connected remnants south of Stawell are of poorsite condition, whilst connected remnants near to HallsGap are of much better quality.64

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land12,000• Private land9,0006,0003,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 43.2Private land median score – 31.8[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Wimmera is typifi ed by fl at to gently undulating plainswith black and grey cracking clay soils in the eastern partof the bioregion. These soils are dominated by PlainsWoodland, Plains Grassy Woodland, Plains Grassland,Red Gum Wetland and Grassy Woodland EVCs. Thesouthwest is characterised by ancient stranded beachridges interspersed with clay plains with cracking claysoils and red texture contrast soils, and swamps, lakes,lagoons and lunettes. The native vegetation on theseless fertile plains is dominated by Heathy Woodland andShallow Sands Woodland.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 400-700 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 18-21˚CLAND USE HISTORYDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha) • Public land40,000• Private land30,00020,00010,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 14.5Private land median score – 8.2[Statewide median score – 14.9]Squatters grazing sheep were the fi rst to settle theWimmera bioregions following reports of favourable landfrom Major Mitchell. During the squatting era, exoticpest species were introduced and caused major soil andvegetation degradation in the region. A shift to freeholdland and small farms commenced in the late 1860s.From the early days of settlement, woodlands capableof yielding timber were cleared early to make way foragriculture. By the 1940s rotational farming of dry cropswas established and continues to the present day. Otherproduction industries include sheep and cattle grazing,pig enterprises, plantation forestry, mineral exploitationand apiculture. Drier conditions appear to be at leastpartly responsible for two trends in the southwest of thebioregion (south of the Little Desert) in recent years: theexpansion of centre pivot irrigation in some places anddryland cereal cropping in others. Both of these trendswould lead to losses of native vegetation in this area,particularly isolated large old paddock trees.65

WARRNAMBOOL PLAINTOTAL BIOREGION 264,110 ha• Largely-intact landscape Nil• Fragmented landscape 264,110 ha – 100%83.0%5.3%3.9%7.8%KEY FINDINGSThe Warrnambool Plain is one of the state’s most heavilycleared bioregions, modifi ed largely by the introductionof pasture species for stock grazing. Less than one fi fthof the original native vegetation extent has been retained,of which more than half is public land and more than halfof this is in the conservation reserve system. A greaterproportion by area of small to moderate size patches(0-250 ha) is found on private land compared to publicland. The proportion by area of medium sized patches(250-500 ha) on private and public land is similar. Theproportion by area of patches in the 500-1,000+ ha rangeis considerably greater on public land.The patterns of the remaining native vegetation arethose typically associated with extensive agriculturalactivities. Native vegetation is predominantly relictualand fragmented or in road reserves. There are few largepatches of native vegetation in the bioregion. The mostextensive remnants of native vegetation are conservationreserves and forest blocks on public land adjoining theOtway Plain bioregion and reserves along the coast.South of Mount Eccles National Park in the far west of thebioregion (east of Tyrendarra), several large-sized remnantsremain. These few but relatively large, patches contributeto the overall site condition and landscape context scoresfor public land which are signifi cantly greater than thosefor private land.The bioregion contains signifi cant areas of riparianand wetland vegetation. Most prominent, and of highconservation value, are the nationally signifi cant wetlandsof Yambuck and Lower Merri wetlands, and portions of theLower Curdies River.FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 44,783 ha – 17.0%• On public land [total] 24,090 ha – 9.2%In conservation reserves 13,892 ha – 5.3%In other public land categories 10,198 ha – 3.9%• On private land 20,694 ha – 7.8%• Not native vegetation 219,327 ha – 83.0%66

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land2,000• Private land1,5001,00050000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 48.2Private land median score – 32.8[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land10,000• Private landBIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Warrnambool Plain consists of defi cient soils overlow calcareous dune formations and a distinctive cliffedcoastline. Much of the limestone has been overlain bymore recent sediments. Between the limestone dunesareas of swamplands are characterised by fertile peats.The area east of Warrnambool is characterised by deepersoils of volcanic origins overlying limestone, which aredissected by streams. The bioregion supports DampSands Herb-rich Woodland, heathlands, heath scrubs,Herb-rich Woodland and Swamp Scrub EVCs.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 600-700 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-15˚CLAND USE HISTORYThe Warrnambool Plain was settled by Europeans in thelate 1830s. The relatively fl at terrain, fertile soils, reliablerainfall and the lack of trees made the region attractive tofarmers for grazing livestock and dairy farming.7,5005,0002,50000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 14.6Private land median score – 4.8[Statewide median score – 14.9]67

MURRAY MALLEEKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 2,919,064 ha• Largely-intact landscape 297,439 ha – 10.2%• Fragmented landscape 2,621,625 ha – 89.8%6.0%6.1%82.7%5.2%Representing the state’s largest bioregion, the MurrayMallee also has the largest area of fragmented landscape.Only 17.3% of native vegetation within the fragmentedlandscape is retained. More than two thirds of thisremaining vegetation is on public land, half of which is inthe conservation reserve system. The Murray Mallee hasblocks of moderate quality remnant native vegetation,many of which are contiguous with the largely-intactlandscapes in the adjoining Lowan Mallee bioregion –overall a variegated landscape (see fi gure 2.3). Outsidethese areas, the land has been extensively cleared forbroadacre cropping, leaving a relictual landscape. Thestark difference between these areas makes this one ofthe most dimorphic bioregions in Victoria. The heavilycleared areas include much of the eastern part of thebioregion and the more productive soils found betweenWyperfeld and Murray-Sunset National Parks. Typical ofheavily cleared bioregions, the Murray Mallee roadsidevegetation is disproportionately a prominent feature ofthe landscape. About 15% of native vegetation on publicland is on roadsides. A greater proportion by area of smallsized patches (0-100 ha) occur on private land than publicland. The proportion by area of 100-1,000 ha patches ishigher on public land than private with the vast majority ofthe 1,000+ ha patches on public land.Signifi cant areas of public land that adjoin the largely-intactlandscapes include: the northwest of the Murray-Sunset National Park,bordering South Australia and the Murray Scroll Belt Yarrara Fauna and Flora Reserve areas contiguous with the Murray-Sunset andHattah-Kulkyne National Parks and Annuello Faunaand Flora Reserve Koorlong Education Area (near Mildura) and a mix ofpublic and private land surrounding this and an areanorth of Cowangie (near Murrayville).FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 453,790 ha – 17.3%• On public land [total] 315,969 ha – 12.1%In conservation reserves 157,617 ha – 6.0%In other public land categories 158,352 ha – 6.1%• On private land 137,822 ha – 5.2%• Not native vegetation 2,167,835 – 82.7%These few but relatively large patches make a substantialcontribution to the signifi cantly higher site conditionand landscape context scores for public land than forprivate land.Lake systems and creek outlets on both public and privateland with signifi cant native vegetation retained include: Lakes Tyrrell, Wahpool and Timboram the Wimmera River and Outlet Creek system includingLakes Albacutya and Hindmarsh.68

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land24,000• Private land18,00012,0006,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 45.2Private land median score – 34.8[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Murray Mallee is part of the much larger MurrayDarling Basin that extends through Victoria, SouthAustralia and New South Wales. Once an inland sea, theMurray Mallee is characterised by an extensive sandy plainwith overlying stabilised linear sand dunes with interveningclay soils in the swales and clay pans.The vegetation of the region is dominated by open 3-7 mtall multi-stemmed eucalypt shrublands with sandy soilssupporting an understorey of Triodia (spinifex grass) andvarious shrubs (e.g. Wattles, Moonah). The heavier claysoils of the dune swales and clay pans support saltbushand semi-succulents species.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 300-400 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 15-21˚CDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land80,000• Private land60,00040,00020,000LAND USE HISTORYWhite settlement in the Murray Mallee bioregion waspatchy until the early 20th century. The bioregion was fi rstsettled by squatters and pastoralists for grazing sheep andcattle. The invention of the mallee roller and the stumpjumpplough in the early 1900s enabled land containingmallee stumps to be cultivated. During the period 1900-1930, vast areas of land were heavily cleared for drylandwheat and cereal cropping.00 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.5Private land median score – 4.4[Statewide median score – 14.9]69

VICTORIAN RIVERINAKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 1,890,328 ha• Largely-intact landscape Nil• Fragmented landscape 1,890,328 ha – 100%0.6% 3.3%15.3%80.8%Much of this large bioregion is heavily fragmented withrelatively little native vegetation remaining and no largelyintactlandscapes. The blocks of native vegetationremaining are regionally signifi cant given the paucity oflarge patches within the bioregion. About one fi fth oforiginal native vegetation extent is retained, of which aboutone fi fth is on public land with a very small proportion ofthe bioregion represented (0.6%) within the conservationreserve system. Remnant vegetation associated withriparian and roadside reserves is disproportionately adominant feature of the landscape. Of the remainingnative vegetation on public land almost 40% is on roadreserves. The high proportion of vegetation clearing andfragmentation has resulted in site condition and landscapecontext scores below the state average for both publicand private land. This bioregion is unusual in that sitecondition and landscape context scores for both tenuresare similar. Also the proportion by area of all patch sizecategories is signifi cantly greater on private than publicland, including the largest patches (1,000+ ha).Areas of good quality and connected landscapes onboth private and public land occur at Boorhaman East,Reef Hills State Park, Longwood Plains, west of Axedaleand the Terrick Terrick/Patho Plains. Signifi cant areas ofriparian vegetation and wetlands on public and privateland include: Kow Swamp and the nearby region southwest ofGunbower Kerang Lakes Reedy Lake and Bailieston East riparian zones along the Ovens and Goulburn Rivers.Notwithstanding these variegated landscapes, and somerelictual landscapes in places such as more intensivelyirrigated areas, this is a relatively homogenous bioregion,mostly ‘fragmented’ (see fi gure 2.3).FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 362,815 ha – 19.2%• On public land [total] 73,886 ha – 3.9%In conservation reserves 10,896 ha – 0.6%In other public land categories 62,990 ha – 3.3%• On private land 288,929 ha – 15.3%• Not native vegetation 1,527,513 ha – 80.8%70

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land18,000• Private land15,00012,0009,0006,0003,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 32.5Private land median score – 29.0[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land40,000• Private land30,000BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Victorian Riverina is characterised by fl at to gentlyundulating landscapes with evidence of former streamchannels and wide fl oodplain areas associated with majorriver systems and streams. Deposits from ancient fl oodplains have given rise to the fertile red brown earths andsoils which dominate the Riverine Plain. The vegetationis dominated by fi ve major vegetation types; Grasslands,Lower Slope Grassy Woodlands, Plains GrassyWoodlands and Forests, Riverine Grassy Woodlands andForests, and Wetlands.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 350-600 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 15-18˚CLAND USE HISTORYThe open grassland plains and grassy woodlands weresettled and developed early by Europeans. The fertilesoils and secure water supply made much of the areasuitable for extensive agriculture, which remains thedominant land-use. Later, large-scale irrigation schemesfor the production of fodder crops, cereals and fruits wereestablished along the Campaspe, Goulburn, Loddon andMurray valleys.20,00010,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 13.1Private land median score – 8.9[Statewide median score – 14.9]71

GIPPSLAND PLAINKEY FINDINGSThe Gippsland Plain retains native vegetation of disparatepattern, refl ecting a variety of land-use histories in thebioregion. Less than one percent of the bioregion islargely-intact. Much of the bioregion has been heavilymodifi ed with only a quarter of the original extent of nativevegetation remaining of which about half is on public land,a substantial proportion within conservation reserves.Overall site condition and landscape context scores forpublic land are greater than private land and the overallstate median. In each patch size class, the proportion byarea on private land is slightly greater than that on publicland for all except the largest patch size, in which publicland dominates.TOTAL BIOREGION 1,208,072 ha• Largely-intact landscape 5,280 ha – less than 1%• Fragmented landscape 1,202,792 ha – ~100%5.2%74.4%7.8%12.6%The western end of the bioregion encompasses thepopulated southeastern suburbs of Melbourne. Herenative vegetation patches are few, small and of poorquality. The Mornington Peninsula and the eastern ruralarea of the bioregion have a high proportion of smallscattered patches of poor site condition because ofagricultural land-use activities. Similarly, in the centralarea of the Gippsland Plain – particularly adjacent tothe Highlands – Southern Fall bioregion – the land hasbeen heavily cleared for agriculture and few patchesof substantial size exist. In these areas the proportionof native vegetation on road reserves is higher thanelsewhere in the bioregion. Several islands in theNooramunga Marine and Coastal Park have vegetationof moderate to good site condition. Large patches occurin the less fertile regions near the coast – around theGippsland Lakes and Ninety Mile Beach, on French Islandand between Holey Plains State Park and Yarram. Thesepatches are of high quality and connectivity – a variegatedlandscape (see fi gure 2.3), contrasting sharply with therelictual landscapes of the remainder of the bioregion.FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 308,320 ha – 25.6%• On public land [total] 156,911 ha – 13.0%In conservation reserves 62,785 ha – 5.2%In other public land categories 94,126 ha – 7.8%• On private land 151,409 ha – 12.6%• Not native vegetation 894,472 ha – 74.4%72

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land15,000• Private land10,0005,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 45.7Private land median score – 32.4[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Gippsland Plain bioregion is characterised by lowlandalluvial and coastal plains formed from erodible Tertiarysediments and Quaternary alluvial deposits. The terrain isfl at to gently undulating and vegetated by Swamp Scruband open forests with a grassy and herbaceous groundlayer.The bioregion is generally below 200 m in altitude,with coastal areas of sandy beaches, shallow inlets andextensive mudfl ats and mangroves. The Gippsland Plaincontains a large number of freshwater wetlands and salineestuaries and lagoons. Major rivers include the Bass, LaTrobe, Thomson, Macalister, Avon and Mitchell.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 600-1100 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 9-15˚CLAND USE HISTORYDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)40,000• Public land• Private land30,00020,00010,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresEuropean settlement occurred relatively late, with mostsettlement occurring after 1860 and settled by families onsmall farms. Vegetation on less fertile soils was clearedafter the development of fertilisers and trace elementtechnology in the 1950s. Substantial areas in the west ofthe bioregion near Melbourne are urbanised and areasto the immediate east have been heavily cleared for dairyand cattle grazing. Land-use outside the Melbourne regionis varied but centred on natural resources – agriculture,energy, forestry and water are the most signifi canteconomic activities. In some areas, there has beenconsiderable purchase of land for lifestyle properties andcoastal areas are popular tourist locations.Public land median score – 15.8Private land median score – 9.9[Statewide median score – 14.9]73

DUNDAS TABLELANDSKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 688,164 ha• Largely-intact landscape 5,553 ha – 0.8%• Fragmented landscape 682,612 ha – 99.2%0.6%6.7%73.1%19.6%A substantial proportion of the Dundas Tablelandshas been heavily modifi ed. Less than 1% of the entirebioregion is within largely-intact landscapes (extendingout from the adjoining Greater Grampians bioregion nearGlenthompson and just south of Rocklands Reservoir),and barely a quarter of the original native vegetation extentis retained in the fragmented landscape. Almost threequarters of the remaining native vegetation occurs onprivate land and has poorer site condition and landscapecontext scores than vegetation on public land. A tinyproportion of remaining native vegetation occurs withinthe conservation reserve system (0.6% of the fragmentedlandscape). The proportion by area of all patch sizecategories is greater on private than public land, includingthe largest patches (1,000+ ha).The Dundas Tablelands occurs in two blocks, separatedthe Greater Grampians bioregion. The block west of theGrampians is the larger of the two. The western half ofthis larger block is noticeably more heavily cleared (foragriculture) than the east, notwithstanding larger patcheson the periphery of Dergholm State Park (which is in theadjoining Glenelg Plain bioregion), centred on state forestsnorth thereof, and along the Glenelg River near Harrow.As well as being better connected, native vegetation in theeastern part of this block and adjacent to the Grampians(including Black Range State Park) is generally in muchbetter condition than that to the west. The same broadpattern is repeated in the smaller block of the bioregionaround Glenthompson – native vegetation in the smallarea fringing the Grampians is more extensive, betterconnected and in better condition than elsewhere in thisblock, where there is little in the way of sizeable patchesof native vegetation beyond a few relatively small wildlifereserves of modest condition (Mt William, Lake Muirheadand Cobra Killuc).FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 183,895 ha – 26.9%• On public land [total] 49,710 ha – 7.3%In conservation reserves 4,078 ha – 0.6%In other public land categories 45,632 ha – 6.7%• On private land 134,185 ha – 19.6%• Not native vegetation 498,717 ha – 73.1%74

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land8,000• Private land6,0002,0001,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 45.1Private land median score – 25.7[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Dundas Tablelands is a dissected plateau formingthe western-most portion of the Victorian Midlands IBRAregion. The tablelands comprise thin marine Tertiarysediments overlaying a Palaeozoic palaeoplain. Blackearths dominate the valleys, yellow texture contrastsoils and cracking clays dominate the rest of the tabletops. Soils tend to become saturated between May andSeptember.The native vegetation is a complex mosaic dominated byGrassy and Herb-rich Woodlands. The major vegetationtypes are Plains Grassy Woodland, Damp Sands HerbrichWoodland, Grassy Woodland and Creekline GrassyWoodland EVCs and related complexes and mosaics.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 600-700 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-15˚CDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land25,000• Private land20,00015,00010,0005,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresLAND USE HISTORYThe Dundas Tablelands was settled early by pastoralistsand has a long history of growing fi ne merino wool. Thegrazing industries expanded rapidly and intensifi ed duringthe 1920s with the introduction of subterranean cloversand super-phosphate. Soldier settlement and closersettlement policies in the 1920s and the 1950s led toincreases in the number of landholdings and intensityof use.Public land median score – 15.3Private land median score – 8.9[Statewide median score – 14.9]75

STRZELECKI RANGESTOTAL BIOREGION 342,179 ha• Largely-intact landscape Nil• Fragmented landscape 342,179 ha – 100%1.5%69.1%12.0%17.4%KEY FINDINGSThe Strzelecki Ranges is heavily modifi ed and has adiverse pattern of landscape clearance. This bioregion isunusual in that much of the landscape is hilly and yet hasbeen relatively heavily cleared. The bioregion containsno largely-intact landscapes and retains almost one thirdof the original extent of native vegetation. Less than halfof the remaining native vegetation is on public land anda small proportion is within the reserve system (1.5% ofthe bioregion). In patch size classes less than 500 ha,the proportion by area is slightly greater on private thanpublic land, while the reverse is true for larger patchsize categories.The far west of the bioregion is the most heavily clearedand comprises vegetation patches that are highlyfragmented, relictual or within roadside reserves. No largepatches occur here. In the centre of the bioregion, largerpatches of native vegetation are associated with theMount Worth State Park and Mirboo North Regional Park.In the east of the bioregion, more extensive areas of nativevegetation remain. The most extensive areas of reasonablywell connected native vegetation occur along the ridgeof the Strzelecki Ranges bounded by Willung South,Tarra Valley, Dumbalk and Yinnar South. Interspersed andadjoining this native vegetation are softwood plantationsof comparable total extent. A sizeable area of nativevegetation occurs at the base of the range along theAlbert River (north of Binginwarri) and through to AlbertonWest State Forest, and is connected to the StrzeleckiRange by a variegated landscape. Cape Liptrap CoastalPark at Waratah Bay is the only signifi cant area of nativevegetation remaining in the coastal area of the bioregion.FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 105,683 ha – 30.9%• On public land [total] 46,087 ha – 13.5%In conservation reserves 5,208 ha – 1.5%In other public land categories 40,879 ha – 12.0%• On private land 59,597 ha – 17.4%The site condition scores of native vegetation on bothpublic and private land are comparable. Overall, thesite condition scores for both public and private landare higher than the state average suggesting that thestructure of the remaining native vegetation has not beengreatly modifi ed. Landscape context scores are highoverall on public land indicating a moderate to good levelof connectivity, not negated by the more heavily clearedwestern parts of the bioregion because there is very littlepublic land there.• Not native vegetation 236,496 ha – 69.1%76

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land6,000• Private land4,0002,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 50.5Private land median score – 41.8[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Strzelecki Ranges bioregion consists of moderate tosteep slopes, deeply dissected blocks of alternating bedsof sandstone, siltstone and shales, and swampy alluvialfans in the lowlands. The geology is of Mesozoic nonmarinedeposits covered with younger Cainozoic depositsincluding newer basalts. Textured acidic and occasionalred earths are found throughout the bioregion with leachedsands in the lowlands.The dominant native vegetation is Wet Forest and DampForest on the higher slopes; and Shrubby Foothill Forestand Lowland Forest on the lower slopes.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 700-1000 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-15˚CLAND USE HISTORYDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land12,000• Private land9,0006,0003,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.1Private land median score – 7.9[Statewide median score – 14.9]Land use history of the Strzelecki Ranges bioregion issimilar to that of the Gippsland Plain. European settlementtended to occur even later because of the rugged terrain –particularly in the east where most of the native vegetationthat escaped clearing remains today. Nonetheless,compared to other mountainous bioregions, the StrzeleckiRanges has been heavily cleared. Early settlers reasonedthat dense forest indicated great agricultural potential andby 1900 most of the land had been cleared with axe, sawand fi re. In addition much of the Strzeleckis was burnt inintense wildfi res – particularly in 1898, 1939 and 1944.Dairying quickly became the dominant land-use but insome areas regrowth of native vegetation remained diffi cultto control for years after clearing, or soils were too shallowor slopes to steep for long-term profi table farming. As aresult some cleared land was abandoned to be replacedby natural regrowth which was subsequently targeted inlarge reafforestation schemes leading to pine and eucalyptplantations (some indigenous) replacing the dogwood andbracken of abandoned farms. Today the bioregion is amosaic of dairy and beef production, native and plantationforests, and some lifestyle properties.77

OTWAY PLAINTOTAL BIOREGION 237,190 ha• Largely-intact landscape 9,529 ha – 4%• Fragmented landscape 227,661 ha – 96%67.5%10.3%10.0%KEY FINDINGSThe Otway Plain is a highly cleared bioregion. Within thefragmented landscape, one-third of the original extentof native vegetation remains. Of this, almost two-thirdsis public land, half of which is within the conservationreserve system. The median site condition and landscapecontext scores are signifi cantly higher for public land thanfor private land. With the exception of the three patch sizeclasses of 250 ha or greater, in all patch size classes thetotal area of private land is greater than that of public land.Around Werribee and Greater Geelong, native vegetationhas been heavily cleared and modifi ed, and what remainsis associated with road reserves and waterways. On theBellarine Peninsula, remnants are largely fragmented andin poor condition. More extensive remnants occur withinmarsh and estuarine ecosystems.Signifi cant patches of moderate to large size are foundfurther west, adjacent to the Otway Ranges bioregion.Southwest of Barongarook, a number of conservationreserves (e.g. Great Otway National Park) and thesurrounding native vegetation form an extensive networkof connected remnants in good to very good condition.12.2%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 73,910 ha – 32.5%• On public land [total] 46,189 ha – 20.3%In conservation reserves 23,442 ha – 10.3%In other public land categories 22,747 ha – 10.0%• On private land 27,721 ha – 12.2%• Not native vegetation 153,751 ha – 67.5%78

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land8,000• Private land6,0002,0001,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 53.4Private land median score – 43.8[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land20,000• Private land15,00010,0005,000BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Otway Plain includes coastal plains, river valleys andfoothills and swamps in the lowlands extending from theBellarine Peninsula west to Princetown. There is also smalloutlier near Werribee, on the western shore of Port PhillipBay. The Otway Plain is one of three similar bioregions thatform the coastal plains of southern Victoria, the other twobeing the Warrnambool Plain and the Gippsland Plain.The bioregion is dominated by gently undulating plainsof Tertiary deposits. Ridges mark positions of ancientshorelines. Soils types and fertility vary across thebioregion. The soils associated with the upper terrain aretexture contrast soils and support Lowland Forest andHeathy Woodland EVCs. The dunes around Anglesea arepredominantly low fertile, sandy soils. The fl oodplains andswamps are earths, pale yellow and grey texture contrastsoils supporting Grassy Woodland and Plains GrassyWoodland. Dry sclerophyll forest dominated by MountainGrey Gum and Messmate occur around the Otwayfoothills. River Red Gum woodlands occur along somedrainage lines.The bioregion is drained in the east mainly by the BarwonRiver (which originates in the Otway Ranges) and itstributaries. In the west the bioregion is drained mainlyby tributaries of the Gellibrand River, although somestreams fl ow north to Lakes Corangamite and Colac inthe Victorian Volcanic Plain.00 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresAverage annual rainfall across the bioregion: 500-1000 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-15˚CPublic land median score – 15.7Private land median score – 13.5[Statewide median score – 14.9]LAND USE HISTORYPresently, much of the Otway Plain is used for grazing,cropping and dairying. In recent years viticulture hasbecome a local land-use, particularly in the BellarinePeninsula. Firewood and some timber is produced fromthe foothill forests. Blue gum and pine plantations arebeing established in the western part of the bioregion.Brown coal is mined near Anglesea. That part of thebioregion near Werribee is dominated by the sewagetreatment plant west of the Werribee River, and intensivehorticulture and residential development to the east. Partof the greater Geelong urban area occurs in the bioregion,with signifi cant semi-urban areas and residential subdivisionsoccurring along coastal areas, at the outskirtsof Geelong and on the Bellarine Peninsula. Other coastalareas are popular tourist destinations.79

MURRAY FANSTOTAL BIOREGION 435,153 ha• Largely-intact landscape Nil• Fragmented landscape 435,153 ha – 100%63.0%10.4%9.6%KEY FINDINGSThe Murray Fans is one of three bioregions along theMurray River fl oodplain downstream of the Ovens junction.The Murray Fans is highly connected but contains nativevegetation of poor to very poor site condition. The riparianzones and recently active fl oodplains are mostly publicland. These areas have retained much of their originalnative vegetation but are of poor site condition becauseof reduced fl oodplain inundation in the decade before2005 when assessments were made. Much of thenative vegetation on private land was once on the activefl oodplain but has been separated from it by levees andhas been degraded as a result of agricultural use. In theseareas – and particularly those parts developed for irrigationbetween Cobram and Nathalia, Leitchville and Kerang,and Swan Hill and Woorinen – native vegetation loss hasleft relictual landscapes surrounded by the variegatedlandscapes that dominate the bioregion.A little more than one third of the original extent of nativevegetation remains (37%), of which more than half is onpublic land, with half of that in conservation reserves.A number of these reserves make up connected linearlandscapes along the Murray River. These landscapes areintermittently broken by highly cleared land; notably in theregion between Koondrook and Nyah. With the exceptionof the 1,000+ ha patch size, the proportion by area of allpatch size classes on private land is greater than that onpublic land.17.0%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 160,856 ha – 37.0%• On public land [total] 86,966 ha – 20.0%In conservation reserves 45,268 ha – 10.4%In other public land categories 41,698 ha – 9.6%• On private land 73,889 ha – 17.0%• Not native vegetation 274,297 ha – 63.0%80

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land12,000• Private land9,0006,0003,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 37.8Private land median score – 33.9[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land25,000• Private land20,00015,00010,000BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Murray Fans is characterised by a fl at to verygently undulating landscapes on recent unconsolidatedsediments with evidence of former river and streamsystems and broad fl oodplains. Alluvial deposits from theCainozoic period have given rise to the red brown earthsand texture contrast soils that support a mosaic of PlainsGrassy Woodland, Pine Box Woodland, Riverina PlainsGrassy Woodland and Riverina Grassy Woodland EVCs.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 300-400 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 15-18˚CLAND USE HISTORYThe resources of the Murray River and associated forestshave sustained European settlement since 1836. TheMurray Fans was settled early by pastoralists and thelocal river red gum forests were heavily cut as fuel for theMurray River paddle-steamers, housing, fi rewood anda variety of other uses capitalising on its comparativedurability particularly when water-logged. Subsequentwaves of settlement occurred following World War I andII, when parcels of land were allotted to soldiers returningfrom war and fl ood protection and irrigation infrastructurewas installed.5,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 16.0Private land median score – 12.3[Statewide median score – 14.9]81

CENTRAL VICTORIAN UPLANDSKEY FINDINGSThe Central Victorian Uplands is a moderately clearedbioregion of which 3% is largely intact. In the fragmentedlandscape, native vegetation remains over almost half thebioregion and more than one third of this is on public land.A relatively small proportion is within the conservationreserve system. Site condition scores of native vegetationon public land are typically higher than those on privateland. Overall though, site condition scores are generallymuch lower than those of other moderately clearedbioregions. Landscape context scores for both public andprivate land are similar. In all patch size classes, includingthe largest (1,000+ ha), the proportion of total area onprivate land is greater than that on public land.TOTAL BIOREGION 1,217,609 ha• Largely-intact landscape 33,282 ha – 2.7%• Fragmented landscape 1,184,327 ha – 97.3%10.4%63.0%9.6%Remaining forest stands are largely on the foothills whilstfl atter more fertile plains have been extensively clearedfor agriculture. Signifi cant patches of remnant nativevegetation of high quality and connectivity adjoin thelargely-intact landscape of the Wombat Forest (including,for example, in the Trentham-Daylesford area) or arecentred on conservation reserves such as Mt Buangor,Langi Ghiran and Enfi eld State Parks and Lake EildonNational Park.Heavily cleared areas tend to be around older townson fl atter terrain, such as Kyneton and Mansfi eld.17.0%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 527,251 ha – 44.5%• On public land [total] 201,969 ha – 17.0%In conservation reserves 52,244 ha – 4.4%In other public land categories 149,725 ha – 12.6%• On private land 325,282 ha – 27.5%• Not native vegetation 657,076 ha – 55.5%82

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land20,000• Private land15,00010,0005,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 47.1Private land median score – 30.4[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha) • Public land80,000• Private land60,00040,00020,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.6Private land median score – 14.0[Statewide median score – 14.9]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Central Victorian Uplands is characterised by gentlyundulating terrain with occasional steeper slopes, ridgesand peaks. Geology is more varied than most bioregions,comprising Palaeozoic sediments transformed andintruded by igneous incursions and raised by earthmovements. Subsequently, there has been relativelylittle geological activity other than erosion subduingthe topography, exposing the granitic intrusions andassociated metamorphics, and forming features such asoutwash fans. The upper slopes and ridges support dryforest and woodland ecosystems. The low lying fertileplains are dominated by open eucalypt (e.g. red box,stringybark, broad-leafed peppermint) and Allocasuarinaforest and woodlands with a diverse ground layer ofgrasses, herbs and shrubs. A number of regionallyimportant rivers traverse the region, including theGoulburn, Broken, Campaspe and Loddon Rivers.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 600-1000 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 15-21˚CLAND USE HISTORYThe bioregion was fi rst taken up by squatters in the1830s and then by miners during the gold rush from the1850s onwards – particularly around Ballarat (the centreof which is just inside the adjoining Victorian VolcanicPlain bioregion) and Clunes. During this period, much ofthe vegetation of the goldfi elds was cleared and the toplayer of soils dug over. Other major settlement periodsincluded two waves of soldier settlements after World WarI and World War II. Currently the main land-use activitiesare sheep and cattle grazing, cropping, viticulture and –in native forests – apiculture. In more recent times therehas been an upsurge of small acreage purchased aslifestyle properties.83

GLENELG PLAINKEY FINDINGSThe Glenelg Plain has just over half of the original extentof native vegetation remaining, mostly in substantialpatches of relatively intact vegetation. Most remnant nativevegetation is on public land and a moderate proportion(11.5%) of the bioregion is in the conservation reservesystem. The site condition and landscape context scoresfor native vegetation are noticeably higher on public landthan private land. The proportion by area of patch sizecategories smaller than 250 ha is greater on private landthan public land. Conversely the proportion by area ofpatch sizes larger than 250 ha is greater on public land,particularly in the 1,000+ ha patch size class.TOTAL BIOREGION 398,828 ha• Largely-intact landscape Nil• Fragmented landscape 398,828 ha – 100%Substantial patches of good quality vegetation are foundin largely public land in and adjoining Lower GlenelgNational Park in the south and Dergholm State Park inthe north, and in an extensive corridor – of mostly stateforest – between these two parks. Linear stretches of poorcondition native vegetation, associated with ancient sanddunes, are scattered throughout the bioregion.53.5%11.5%23.1%11.9%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 185,536 ha – 46.5%• On public land [total] 138,074 ha – 34.6%In conservation reserves 45,830 ha – 11.5%In other public land categories 92,244 ha – 23.1%• On private land 47,462 ha – 11.9%• Not native vegetation 213,292 ha – 53.5%84

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land16,000• Private land12,0008,0004,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 51.0Private land median score – 34.8[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresBIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Glenelg Plain is the Victorian part of the NaracoorteCoastal Plain IBRA region. The bioregion is predominantlyfl at and low lying, ranging from sea level to less than 200metres above sea level. It features a series of long lownarrow parallel dune limestone ridges with interveningswamps, closed limestone depressions and some youngvolcanoes. These Cainozoic deposits give rise to paleacidic sandy dunes and humic acid sands on the fl ats.Floristically, the bioregion is varied. Coastal communitiesare composed of beach and dune vegetation (HeathyHerb-rich Woodland and Damp Sands Herb-richWoodland). Wet heathlands occur on infertile soils.Woodlands (Heathy and Plains Woodlands) occur throughmuch of the bioregion, particularly in the north.The Glenelg River and its tributaries the Wannon andCrawford are the area’s most signifi cant waterways. Thesmaller Fitzroy and Surrey Rivers fl ow across the southeasternportion of the Glenelg Plain.Area (ha)60,000• Public land• Private landAverage annual rainfall across the bioregion: 700-800 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-15˚C45,00030,00015,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.6Private land median score – 9.6[Statewide median score – 14.9]LAND USE HISTORYPortland was one of the fi rst European settlements inVictoria with activities generally confi ned to the coast untilnative grasslands and grassy woodlands were discovered.An expanding pastoral industry was quickly establishedin and around the bioregion. Much of the sandy soil areasof the Glenelg Plain have been cleared for agriculture andplantations. Following World War II broad-scale Pinusradiata plantations were established in areas borderingSouth Australia. Establishment of pine and blue gumplantations continues. Centre pivot irrigation has recentlybecome prominent in the area between Strathdownie andthe South Australian border.Broad-scale drainage works have drained numerouswetland (native marsh and riparian vegetation) systemsalthough the nationally signifi cant Mundi-Selkirk wetlands(near the South Australian border west of Casterton)and Lindsay Werrikoo wetlands (between Lindsaynear the South Australian border and Wilkin, east ofStrathdownie) remain.85

NORTHERN INLAND SLOPESKEY FINDINGSThis bioregion has just under half its original nativevegetation remaining, only a very small area of which islargely intact. Almost half of the remnant native vegetationis on public land (22% of the original extent) and almosthalf of this is in conservation reserves. The median sitecondition and landscape context scores on public land aregreater than those for private land. However, the overallsite condition score is much lower than those of othermoderately cleared bioregions. In all patch size classes,the proportion by area on private land is greater than thaton public land, except for the largest patches (1,000+ ha).TOTAL BIOREGION 565,808 ha• Largely-intact landscape 730 ha – less than 1%• Fragmented landscape 565,078 ha – ~100%Landscape patterns on both public and private land area mix of fragmented, variegated and better connectedlandscapes. Outliers in the west of the bioregion,surrounded by the Victorian Riverina bioregion – includingin the Mt Hope and Terrick Terrick area – are most highlyfragmented and are more relictual. Towards the east,adjacent to the Highlands – Northern Falls bioregion,more substantial patches of native vegetation of highconnectivity occur. Other signifi cant areas of extensivelyconnected landscapes include:53.2%9.7%12.4% the Warby Ranges (north-west of Wangaratta) landscapes between Beechworth and Chiltern areas south of the Murray River, east of Wodonga.24.7%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 264,187 ha – 46.8%• On public land [total] 124,476 ha – 22.1%In conservation reserves 54,650 ha – 9.7%In other public land categories 69,826 ha – 12.4%• On private land 139,711 ha – 24.7%• Not native vegetation 300,891 ha – 53.2%86

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land10,000• Private land7,5005,0002,50000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 43.0Private land median score – 30.4[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha) • Public land50,000• Private land40,00030,00020,00010,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.9Private land median score – 14.1[Statewide median score – 14.9]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThis bioregion has clear affi nities with the Victoria’sGoldfi elds bioregion but at the national level it forms partof the (New South Wales) South West Slopes bioregionthat extends along the inland slopes of the Great DividingRange well into central New South Wales. Many distinctivecharacteristics – such as mugga ironbark and white boxpredominating on low hills, rather than the red ironbarkand grey box of the Goldfi elds – are refl ected in thisalignment with similar environments to the north. TheNorthern Inland Slopes consists of small ranges andfoothill slopes separated by river valleys that drain from theHigh Country to the Murray River. The ranges and slopesare a mix of complex geology of granitic and metamorphicorigin protruding through the riverine plain. The vegetationis dominated by dry forests and grassy understoreys.The less fertile hills support Box-Ironbark, Heathy andShrubby Dry Forests. The fertile plains and valleys supportriverine and grassy forests. The major rivers drainingfrom the highlands include the Broken, King, Ovens andKiewa Rivers.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 400-1000 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-18˚CLAND USE HISTORYPastoralists were the fi rst European settlers in the district.As with other bioregions in north central Victoria, someareas were mined during the goldrush of the 1850s.Following the exhaustion of goldmining, agriculturebecame the major human activity in the bioregion. Thefertile valleys have been utilised extensively for dairying andcereal cropping. On the less fertile hills sheep and cattlegrazing are the major agricultural activities. Until morerecent times, timber harvesting – mostly for fi rewood,rail sleepers and fence posts was also a signifi cantland-use activity.87

GOLDFIELDSKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 1,325,762 ha• Largely-intact landscape Nil• Fragmented landscape 1,325,762 ha – 100%8.9%46.3%14.7%The Goldfi elds bioregion is moderately cleared. More thanhalf the bioregion has retained native vegetation and theoverall pattern of clearance tends to be a mix of variegatedand fragmented. Twenty-three percent of the remainingextent of native vegetation occurs on public land of whichless than a tenth is on roadsides. A moderate proportionof the bioregion is in conservation reserves (8.9%). Inall patch size classes the proportion of private land byarea is slightly greater than that on public land, althoughthey are similar in the 1,000+ ha class. The proportionof cleared land in the landscape increases towards thewest, particularly in areas adjoining agricultural land inthe Wimmera and Victorian Volcanic Plain bioregions. Insome localised areas native vegetation is either relictual oron roadsides.Overall the Goldfi elds bioregion has a relatively highproportion of remnant native vegetation of highconnectivity. On the other hand, site condition scores –and particularly those on private land – are conspicuouslylower than the comparable scores of other moderatelycleared bioregions. This indicates that the Goldfi eldscontains a high proportion of structurally modifi ed nativevegetation, most likely caused by past mining practices.Areas retaining native vegetation that is both highlyconnected and of good site condition are not extensive.These occur near Fryers Ridge, Castlemaine, St ArnaudRange and south-west of Rushworth.30.1%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 711, 954 ha – 53.7%• On public land [total] 313,496 ha – 23.6%In conservation reserves 117,986 ha – 8.9%In other public land categories 195,510 ha – 14.7%• On private land 398,457 ha – 30.1%• Not native vegetation 613,808 ha – 46.3%88

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land30,000• Private land20,00010,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 38.3Private land median score – 26.9[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Goldfi elds bioregion is characterised by a seriesof low hills and rolling plains, mainly sedimentary inorigin. Metamorphic and old volcanic rocks formrugged slopes and ridges. The forests and woodlandshave relatively poor soils and uncertain rainfall. GrassyWoodland and Grassy Forests dominate the bioregion.Box Ironbark Forest, Heathy Dry Forest and Grassy DryForest vegetation types occur on the lower slopes andpoor soils. Regionally important rivers that dissect thebioregion include the Wimmera, Avoca, Loddon andCampaspe Rivers.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 400-1000 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 15-21˚CLAND USE HISTORYDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)140,000120,000100,00080,00060,00040,00020,0000• Public land• Private land0 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresSince European settlement, much of the bioregion hasbeen cleared and greatly modifi ed by mining, timberextraction and agriculture. The bioregion was settled early;fi rst by pastoralists, but the discovery of alluvial gold in the1850s saw a wave of immigration and extensive areas ofthe region cleared for timber and mined. In more recenttimes, grazing and timber harvesting have decreasedenabling some regeneration. The native forests of theGoldfi elds comprise the core of Victoria’s large apicultureindustry. Some areas in close proximity to Melbourne andthe major economic centres have been sub-divided forresidential and lifestyle blocks.Public land median score – 15.9Private land median score – 14.8[Statewide median score – 14.9]89

LOWAN MALLEEKEY FINDINGSDue to the unsuitability of the dry sandy soils foragriculture, more than half of the Lowan Mallee remainslargely-intact. Beyond this – in the fragmented landscape– 57% of native vegetation remains. A high proportion ofremnant native vegetation occurs on public land (43.5%),with good representation in the reserve system (28.2% ofthe total fragmented landscape). The proportion by areaof all patch size categories is slightly greater on privateland than public land, except the largest patches (1,000+ha) where the proportion by area is substantially greateron public land compared to private land. These patchescontribute to the high site condition and landscapecontext scores on public land in the bioregion.TOTAL BIOREGION 1,419,874 ha• Largely-intact landscape 907,039 ha – 63.9%• Fragmented landscape 512,835 ha – 36.1%28.2%42.8%Areas in the fragmented landscape cleared of vegetationoccur along the boundary of the bioregion where thesandy soils merge with the heavier, more fertile soils of theMurray Mallee and Wimmera bioregions. This is particularlyevident south of the Big Desert Wilderness Area wherenative vegetation has been cleared for agriculture.Although native vegetation here is fragmented, remnantsremain moderate in connectivity and site condition, andlinear roadsides feature strongly. Of the remnants thatoccur at least partly outside the largely-intact landscapes,Annuello, Wathe and Bronzewing Nature ConservationReserves are exceptionally signifi cant within the state interms of size, connectivity and vegetation quality.15.3%13.7%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 293,303 ha – 57.2%• On public land [total] 223,249 ha – 43.5%In conservation reserves 144,542 ha – 28.2%In other public land categories 78,707 ha – 15.3%• On private land 70,054 ha – 13.7%• Not native vegetation 219,532 ha – 42.8%90

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land24,000• Private land18,00012,0006,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 44.6Private land median score – 39.5[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land100,000• Private land75,00050,00025,000BIOPHYSICAL BASISLowan Mallee is typifi ed by white siliceous sand formedinto a complex array of high irregular and parabolicsand-dunes traversing Woorinen Sands at three locationscorresponding roughly to the Sunset Country, and the Bigand Little Deserts. The vegetation is dominated by LowanSands Mallee, with some Chenopod Mallee in the regionof the Sunset Country, while Mallee-heath, Loamy Mallee,Scrub Pine Woodland, Broombush and Red-swale malleevegetation types occur in the Big and Little Deserts, furthersouth in the bioregion.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 300-600 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-18˚CLAND USE HISTORYThe Lowan Mallee is dominated by poor soils,unfavourable for agriculture. Agricultural activities,mostly in the form of broadacre wheat cropping, aregenerally confi ned to the margins of the bioregionwhere the Lowan Sands merge into heavier more fertilesoils. Remnant native vegetation of the Lowan Malleeis important to apiarists. As a consequence, much ofthe bioregion remains intact and contains the Murray-Sunset, Little Desert and Wyperfeld National Parks,the Big Desert Wilderness Area and Annuello NatureConservation Reserve.00 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.9Private land median score – 13.3[Statewide median score – 14.9]91

HIGHLANDS – SOUTHERN FALLKEY FINDINGSOne third of the Highlands – Southern Fall bioregion isfragmented. Within the fragmented landscape extensiveareas of native vegetation remain (59.7%) of which almosthalf is on public land. A moderate proportion is withinconservation reserves (8.4% of the total fragmentedlandscape), many of which extend into the largelyintactlandscape. The largest parks and conservationreserves are Kinglake National Park, Yarra RangesNational Park, Bunyip State Park, Sweetwater CreekNature Conservation Reserve and Tyers Park. Thesereserves contribute to the overall higher site condition andlandscape context scores for public land compared toprivate land.TOTAL BIOREGION 1,196,155 ha• Largely-intact landscape 795,761 ha – 66.5%• Fragmented landscape 400,394 ha – 33.5%8.5%40.3%18.8%The majority of land clearing and human occupationwithin the bioregion is at elevations below 300 metres.On the gentle slopes and the fertile lowland valleys whereagricultural, timber and semi-rural developments occur,the native vegetation is increasingly fragmented. Areasthat have been signifi cantly cleared and modifi ed includethe Yarra and Tarago Valleys. Here, many thousands ofrelictual patches, less than one hectare occur. Outsidethese valleys a signifi cant proportion of the vegetationis a single patch (46% of the fragmented landscape)contiguous with the largely-intact landscape. Theproportion by area of all patch size classes is slightlygreater on private land compared to public land, with theexception of the 1,000+ ha class. Areas of public andprivate land that are variegated in landscape pattern andretain connectivity to the largely-intact landscape includethose bounded by: Mt Dandenong, Ferntree Gully and Belgrave Warrandyte, Eltham, Hurstbridge and Christmas Hillsand between Berwick and Beaconsfi eld.32.4%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 238,959 ha – 59.7%• On public land [total] 109,113 ha – 27.3%In conservation reserves 33,830 ha – 8.5%In other public land categories 75,283 ha – 18.8%• On private land 129,846 ha – 32.4 %• Not native vegetation 161,435 ha – 40.3%92

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land12,000• Private land9,0006,0003,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 50.1Private land median score – 40.2[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land50,000• Private land40,00030,00020,00010,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.8Private land median score – 14.2[Statewide median score – 14.9]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Victorian Highlands – Southern Fall is part of thesouthern slopes of the Great Dividing Range. Theseuplands have moderate to steep slopes, high plateauxand alluvial fl ats along the main valleys. The geologypredominantly consists of Palaeozoic sediments andminor volcanics. Brown and red porous earths occur in theupper reaches and yellow and red texture contrast soilsgraduate down the valleys.The Highlands – Southern Fall contains Victoria’s mostextensive areas of Cool Temperate Rainforest. Thedominant vegetation types are Shrubby Dry Forest andDamp Forest on the upper slopes. Wet Forest ecosystemsoccur in the valleys. Montane Dry Woodland, MontaneDamp Forest and Montane Wet Forest occur at higherelevations. The gullies and river valleys support a varietyof ecological vegetation classes including Riparian Forest,Riparian Thicket and Montane Riparian Thicket.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 700-1200 mmSnowfall is common above 900 m in winter.Daily mean temperature across the bioregion: 6-15˚CLAND USE HISTORYEarly European settlement was sparse and concentratedon the gently undulating areas on the fringes of thebioregion. The extensive Mountain Ash forests in thesouthern and western parts of the bioregion havesupported timber harvesting industries since the 19thCentury. The bioregion also contains signifi cant areas ofpine and eucalypt plantations. Other land-use activitiesinclude sheep and cattle grazing and dairying. Somepublic land areas are also used for grazing and apiculture.Tourism and recreation are signifi cant land uses in some ofthe more elevated parts of the bioregion.The highlands are signifi cant water catchment areassupplying the majority of water for Melbourne andirrigated agriculture and power generation in the adjoiningGippsland Plain bioregion. Major impoundments includethe Thomson Dam, Lake Glenmaggie, Blue Rock Lake,and the Upper Yarra and Maroondah reservoirs.93

EAST GIPPSLAND LOWLANDSKEY FINDINGSThe East Gippsland Lowlands bioregion is moderatelycleared. More than half of the original extent of nativevegetation in the fragmented landscape remains. Overhalf is on public land, although only a small proportion(3.9%) is within conservation reserves. Site condition andlandscape context scores for public and private land aresimilar. By area, public land accounts for a large majority ofthe largest (1,000+ ha) patches, while in other patch sizeclasses private land dominates by area.TOTAL BIOREGION 531,830 ha• Largely-intact landscape 357,394 ha – 67.2%• Fragmented landscape 174,436 ha – 32.8%Extensive clearing has been confi ned largely to thewestern fi nger of the bioregion east to Lakes Entranceand Bruthen where agricultural activities dominate.Remnant native vegetation contiguous with the largelyintactlandscape is of good site condition and variegatedin pattern. The fl atter land adjacent to the GippslandPlain is heavily fragmented. Scattered within the largelyintactlandscape are cleared areas associated with majortownships along the Princes Highway such as Orbost andCann River.3.9%37.6%33.4%25.1%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 108,839 ha – 62.4%• On public land [total] 65,080 ha – 37.3%In conservation reserves 6,724 ha – 3.9%In other public land categories 58,356 ha – 33.4%• On private land 43,760 ha – 25.1%• Not native vegetation 65,597 ha – 37.6%94

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land10,000• Private land7,5005,0002,50000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 50.1Private land median score – 40.3[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe East Gippsland Lowlands bioregion has gentlyundulating terraces fl anked by coastal plains, dunefi eldsand inlets. The geology is a complex of Palaeozoic andCainozoic deposits predominantly of granite, sands,marine sediments and beach deposits giving rise to yellowtexture contrast soils on the terraces, leached sands ofthe coastal plains and dunes, friable earths and texturecontrast soils along the fl oodplains and valleys.The vegetation is dominated by Lowland Forest withDamp Forest and Shrubby Dry Forest interspersedthroughout the foothills; Banksia Woodland and RiparianScrub Complex are common in coastal areas.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 700-1100 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 15-18˚CDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)30,000• Public land• Private land20,00010,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresLAND USE HISTORYSettlement by Europeans has been largely confi nedto the coastal plains, fertile alluvial valleys and someparts of the tablelands. Settlement was gradual until thelate 19th Century when the discovery of gold, the landselection acts, and the arrival of the railway accelerateddevelopment. Grazing was the major land-use activityuntil commencement of the timber industry on a largescale in the 1950s. Tourism is a signifi cant industry in thecoastal towns.Public land median score – 16.0Private land median score – 14.6[Statewide median score – 14.9]95

MONARO TABLELANDSKEY FINDINGSThe Monaro Tablelands is a relatively small bioregionsurrounded by largely-intact landscapes. Within thebioregion, more than half of the original native vegetationoccurs in the fragmented landscape. Of this, half (33.5%of the total fragmented landscape) is on public land witha small proportion in conservation reserves (4.3%). Ineach patch size class, the proportion by area is similaror slightly greater on private land than on public land.Native vegetation contiguous with adjoining largely-intactlandscapes is of good quality and high connectivity. In themore cleared areas, site condition is poor but connectivityis relatively moderate. Vegetation clearance is dominatedby variegated and fragmented patterns.TOTAL BIOREGION 74,821 ha• Largely-intact landscape 27,120 ha – 36.2%• Fragmented landscape 47,701 ha – 63.8%4.3%34.9%29.2%31.6%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 31,065 ha – 65.1%• On public land [total] 15,985 ha – 33.5%In conservation reserves 2,052 ha – 4.3%In other public land categories 13,933 ha – 29.2%• On private land 15,080 ha – 31.6%• Not native vegetation 16,636 ha – 34.9%96

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land2,400• Private land1,8001,20080000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 49.0Private land median score – 33.9[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThis bioregion covers the Victorian section of the MonaroTablelands, the vast majority of which occurs furthernorth into New South Wales. That is, the bioregion is partof a higher-altitude tableland adjacent to the Alps thatconsists of undulating rises and occurrences of low hillsand depositional fl ats with soils of high organic content.The geology is Palaeozoic consisting of granitic andsedimentary deposits.The vegetation is dominated by Montane Dry Woodland,Montane Grassy Woodland, Montane Riparian Woodlandand Tableland Damp Forest EVCs.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 700-1400 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 6-12˚CLAND USE HISTORYDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land8,000• Private landThe Monaro Tablelands were settled by pastoralists forbeef and wool growing. In the climatically favourable areasprime lamb is also farmed. Timber harvesting is a majorland use. It commenced around Bendoc in the 1850s andexpanded rapidly from the 1950s.6,0002,0001,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.9Private land median score – 15.2[Statewide median score – 14.9]97

EAST GIPPSLAND UPLANDSKEY FINDINGSEighty percent of the East Gippsland Uplands bioregion islargely intact. Outside the largely-intact landscape a highproportion of native vegetation remains (66.7%), more thana third of which is on public land with a small proportionin the conservation reserve system (5.1%). In every patchsize class, the total area of native vegetation on privateland is slightly greater than that on public land.TOTAL BIOREGION 791,031 ha• Largely-intact landscape 632,514 ha – 80.0%• Fragmented landscape 158,517 ha – 20.0%The pattern of clearance in the fragmented landscapeis dominated by variegated and fragmented patches ofnative vegetation with small areas relatively heavily cleared.Site condition tends to be moderate to poor depending onthe extent of fragmentation. Small pockets of fragmentedvegetation occur around Buldah and Combienbar in thefar east of the bioregion (north of Cann River). A moderateamount of vegetation has been cleared along the DeddickRiver Road, between Bonang and Deddick in the farnorth-east of the bioregion. The fl atter terrain of theGelantipy Road (north of Buchan), the southern end of theGreat Alpine Road (Swifts Creek to Tambo Crossing), andaround Bindi and Omeo has been moderately cleared.5.1%33.3%23.5%38.1%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 105,717 ha – 66.7%• On public land [total] 45,259 ha – 28.6%In conservation reserves 8100 ha – 5.1%In other public land categories 37,159 ha – 23.5%• On private land 60,459 ha – 38.1%• Not native vegetation 52,800 ha – 33.3%98

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land8,000• Private land6,0002,0001,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 48.8Private land median score – 33.9[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land30,000• Private landBIOPHYSICAL BASISThe East Gippsland Uplands consists of tablelands andmountains up to 1400 metres elevation. The geologystems from Palaeozoic deposits predominantly of graniticand sedimentary origin which give rise to red texturecontrast soils and brown and red friable earths. Thevegetation is dominated by Shrubby Dry Forest and DampForest on the upland slopes and Wet Forest EVCs whichare restricted to the higher altitudes; Grassy Woodland,Grassy Dry Forest and Valley Grassy Forest EVCs areassociated with major river valleys.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 700-1400 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 9-15˚CLAND USE HISTORYThe major land use within the East Gippsland Uplandsis timber harvesting, but sheep and cattle grazing alsooccurs. Sheep are grown in areas of lower rainfall aroundTubbut. Depending on the elevation, a variety of timbersare harvested from the extensive forests in the region.20,00010,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 16.2Private land median score – 15.4[Statewide median score – 14.9]99

BRIDGEWATERKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 18,110 ha• Largely-intact landscape NilThis small bioregion retains a large proportion of theoriginal extent of native vegetation. More than half ofnative vegetation occurs on public land, mostly withinthe Discovery Bay Coastal Park and other small reserves(51.6%). Despite these remnants forming a highlyconnected landscape, overall site condition tends to bepoor, interspersed with scattered patches of good qualityvegetation. The poor site condition of native vegetation isassociated with the highly mobile sand dunes in the eastof Discovery Bay Coastal Park. Outside the conservationreserves, with the exception of the coastal fringes, thelandscape is heavily cleared. The proportion by area ofpatch size categories is greater on private land comparedto public land with the exception of the 1,000+ hacategory which is substantially greater on public land.• Fragmented landscape 18,110 ha – 100%31.5%51.6%13.5%3.5%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 12,414 ha – 68.5%• On public land [total] 9,971 ha – 55.1%In conservation reserves 9,337 ha – 51.6%In other public land categories 634 ha – 3.5%• On private land 2,443 ha – 13.5%• Not native vegetation 5,696 ha – 31.5%100

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land1,200• Private land80040000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 36.5Private land median score – 34.8[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISBridgewater bioregion is a thin coastal plain of Tertiarylimestones which have been overlain by Upper Pliocenebasalts. Along the coastal areas wind and wave action hascut into rock, creating tall cliff faces with overhanging anddeep caves. A dune capped sand ridge stretches parallelto the coastline with gently sloping sandy terrain andlagoonal systems behind. The lagoonal system supportsa network of deep water pools and collapsed caverns orsink holes. The soils are a combination of siliceous sandson the dunes with underlying calcareous deposits givingrise to Calcarenite Dune Woodland and Coastal DuneScrub. Wetlands extend intermittently from approximatelythe Bridgewater Lakes to the shallow estuary of theGlenelg River at Nelson, extending into South Australia.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 600-700 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-15˚CDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land5,000• Private land4,0003,0002,0001,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresLAND USE HISTORYOutside the Discovery Bay Coastal Park agriculture is themain land use activity. The dune fi elds of the bioregion arean unusual feature, constituting the largest area of mobiledunes in Victoria. The extensive areas of bare sand maybe partly natural, although it is likely that human activities(pre- and post-European occupation) have extended andaccelerated dune erosion. Coastal development of thearea, particularly for tourism, is increasing.Public land median score – 15.7Private land median score – 14.3[Statewide median score – 14.9]101

HIGHLANDS – NORTHERN FALLKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 1,415,346 ha• Largely-intact landscape 770,912 ha – 54.5%• Fragmented landscape 644,434 ha – 45.5%31.2%9.9%The Highlands – Northern Fall bioregion is one of themoderately cleared bioregions buffered extensively bylargely-intact landscapes. The boundary adjacent to theVictorian Alps is largely intact and contiguous with theVictorian Alps. In the fragmented landscape 68.8% of theoriginal native vegetation remains. Most (46.8% of the totalfragmented landscape) is on public land with a moderateproportion in conservation reserves (9.9%). Clearingof vegetation is confi ned to the bioregion boundariesadjacent to the Central Victorian Uplands and the NorthernInlands Slopes as well as around Omeo. Cleared areasare associated with the fl atter slopes and river valleysthat are more suitable for agriculture. Overall the sitecondition and landscape context of patches are good.However, much poorer remnants occur in the bioregionisolates surrounded by the Northern Inland Slopes,around Beechworth and Koetong in the far north whereextensive softwood plantations have been established.The proportion by area of patch size class is greater onprivate land compared to public land with the exceptionof the 1,000+ ha class which is about twice as large onpublic land.36.9%21.9%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 443, 083 ha – 68.8%• On public land [total] 301,747 ha – 46.8%In conservation reserves 64,104 ha – 9.9%In other public land categories 237,643 ha – 36.9%• On private land 141,336 ha – 21.9%• Not native vegetation 201,351 ha – 31.2%102

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)35,00030,00025,00020,00015,00010,0005,0000Public land median score – 48.2Private land median score – 37.8[Statewide median score – 36.8]Site condition scores• Public land• Private land0 20 40 60 80BIOPHYSICAL BASISHighlands – Northern Fall bioregion is the northerly aspectof the Great Dividing Range comprising dissected uplandswith moderate to steep slopes, high plateaus and alluvialfl ats along the main valleys. The geology is of Palaeozoicdeposits giving rise to predominantly sedimentary andgranitic rocks. The brown and red porous earths occurin the upper reaches and yellow and red texture contrastsoils graduate down the valleys.The vegetation is a patchwork of Herb-rich Foothill Forestand Shrubby Dry Forest. Major vegetation types of thelower slopes are Montane Dry Woodland. Heathy DryForest EVCs occur on the upper slopes and plateau.Grassy Dry Forest and Valley Grassy Forest occur alongthe river valleys.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 700-1400 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 9-12˚CDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)140,000120,000100,00080,00060,00040,00020,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scores• Public land• Private landLAND USE HISTORYThe bioregion was settled initially by pastoralists for sheepgrazing. The improvement of pastures by the introductionof subterranean clover and super-phosphate has enabledcattle grazing to occur. The bioregion has supporteda number of land use activities including mining, dairyfarming and timber harvesting.Public land median score – 16.1Private land median score – 15.0[Statewide median score – 14.9]103

OTWAY RANGESKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 149,755 ha• Largely-intact landscape 47,199 ha – 31.5%• Fragmented landscape 102,556 ha – 68.5%The Otway Ranges bioregion retains most of its originalnative vegetation. About one third of native vegetationwithin this bioregion occurs within largely-intactlandscapes and a signifi cant proportion in the fragmentedlandscape (76.1%) remains. About half of the remnantnative vegetation is on public land (54.3%). A largeproportion is represented in the conservation reservesystem (33%) and is part of, and contiguous with, thelargely-intact landscape of the Great Otway National Parkthat makes up most of the northeast of the bioregion.The remainder of the landscape is generally variegated.Remnant native vegetation in these areas is of moderateto good condition suggesting that the structural integrityand/or understorey of the vegetation is intact despitethe fragmentation. In the Beech Forest area, nativevegetation has been extensively cleared for agricultureand plantations. By area, public land accounts for a largemajority of the largest (1,000+ ha) patches, while in otherpatch size classes private land dominates by area.23.9%33%21.8%21.3%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 78,064 ha – 76.1%• On public land [total] 55,699 ha – 54.3%In conservation reserves 33,874 ha – 33%In other public land categories 21,825 ha – 21.3%• On private land 22,365 ha – 21.8%• Not native vegetation 24,493 ha – 23.9%104

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land10,000• Private land7,5005,0002,50000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 53.1Private land median score – 45.4[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Otway Ranges bioregion is characterised by moderateto steep slopes, deeply dissected blocks of alternatingbeds of sandstone, siltstone and shales, and swampyalluvial fans in the lowlands. The geology is of Mesozoicnon-marine deposits covered with a veneer of youngerCainozoic deposits at lower elevations. Brown earthsand brown texture contrast soils occur throughout thebioregion with leached sands in the lowlands.The dominant vegetation is Wet Forest, Shrubby WetForest and Cool Temperate Rainforest on the higherslopes; and Shrubby Foothill Forest on the lower slopes.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 800-2000 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12˚CLAND USE HISTORYDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)20,000• Public land• Private land15,00010,0005,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresWhalers and sealers established the fi rst Europeansettlements at Lorne and Apollo Bay. Timber productionfollowed in the 1850s. Settlement is concentratedbetween Beech Forest and Lavers Hill and along thecoast. Most settlements are based on dairy cattle andsheep grazing, although tourism is a major activity atApollo Bay, Lorne and Aireys Inlet. Softwood plantationand hardwood forestry continue to be major land-usesin the bioregion. A large part of the bioregion serves ascatchment for domestic water supply for communitiesfrom Warrnambool to Geelong.Public land median score – 16.4Private land median score – 15.0[Statewide median score – 14.9]105

GREATER GRAMPIANSKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 237,351 ha• Largely-intact landscape 142,917 ha – 60.2%More than half (60%) of the Greater Grampians is largelyintact. In the fragmented landscape, a major proportion ofthe landscape has native vegetation cover (78.6%). Halfoccurs on public land, of which almost all (41.2%) is in thereserve system. Cleared areas correspond to the foothillsof the Grampians, including the Victoria Valley. The VictoriaValley is the only heavily cleared area where the majorityof native remnants are small and in poor condition. Theremnants within the eastern and the north-west fringesof the bioregion that fl ank the Grampians National Parkare variegated in pattern, and are generally of poor qualitybut moderately well connected. The proportion by areais greater on private land for patches smaller than 100ha, mixed for the moderately sized patches, and is abouttwice the area on public land compared to private land forthe 1,000+ ha size class.• Fragmented landscape 94,434 ha – 39.8%21.4%41.2%26.7%10.6%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 74,195 ha – 78.6%• On public land [total] 48,936 ha – 51.8%In conservation reserves 38,877 ha – 41.2%In other public land categories 10,059 ha – 10.6%• On private land 25,259 ha – 26.7%• Not native vegetation 20,239 ha – 21.4%106

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land5,000• Private land4,0003,0002,0001,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 51.0Private land median score – 40.4[Statewide median score – 36.8]BIOPHYSICAL BASISGreater Grampians is dominated by ridges of resistantsandstone giving rise to striking parallel ranges andvalleys which have been cut either in soft shales or deeplyweathered granites. The Palaeozoic deposits give riseto deep acidic yellow texture contrast soils and shallowsandy soils.The Greater Grampians is recognised as an exceptionallyrich area for plants, supporting over 40 endemic species.The bioregion is dominated by Dry Foothill ForestComplexes, Inland Slopes Woodland Complexes, HerbrichWoodland Complexes and Plains Grassy WoodlandComplexes with small patches of Heathy WoodlandComplexes and Valley Grassy Forest Complexes.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 600-1000 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-15˚CDistribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land25,000• Private land20,00015,00010,0005,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresLAND USE HISTORYThe Grampians’ heritage includes timber productionfor mines and farms, gold mining, stone quarrying,water supply, recreation and tourism. Tourism beganin the late 19th century with the spread of railways anda developing interest in natural landscapes. Today theGreater Grampians sustains a diverse range of recreationalactivities including camping, bush-walking, abseiling,birdwatching, four wheel driving and water sports.Public land median score – 16.3Private land median score – 15.3[Statewide median score – 14.9]107

ROBINVALE PLAINSKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 64,186 ha• Largely-intact landscape 22,132 ha – 34.5%• Fragmented landscape 42,054 ha – 65.5%20.2%Thirty-four percent of the Robinvale Plains bioregion iswithin the largely-intact landscape of which most formspart of the Hattah-Kulkyne National Park and Murray-Kulkyne Park. In the fragmented landscape 79.8% ofthe original extent of native vegetation is retained, ofwhich 62.8% in on public land. The proportion of nativevegetation in the fragmented landscape and within thereserve system is moderate (14.1%). These reservesinclude Lambert Island and Karadoc Nature ConservationReserves and Gadsen Bend and Kings Billabong Parksalong the Murray River. Almost all of the Robinvale Plainsthat fl anks the Murray River is highly connected or atworst, consists of small linear remnants moderatelyconnected. Landscape condition is moderate to poor,probably refl ecting a widespread history of overgrazingby native and introduced herbivores. Small areas of goodquality habitat occur adjacent to the Hattah-KulkyneNational Park. The proportion by area of patch sizessmaller than 50 ha is greater on private land compared topublic land. Conversely the proportion by area of patchsizes larger than 50 ha is substantially greater on publicland.14.1%17.1%48.6%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 33,576 ha – 79.8%• On public land [total] 26,391 ha – 62.7%In conservation reserves 5,934 ha – 14.1%In other public land categories 20,457 ha – 48.6%• On private land 7,185 ha – 17.1%• Not native vegetation 8,478 ha – 20.2%108

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land3,000• Private land2,0001,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 41.6Private land median score – 39.3[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land15,000• Private landBIOPHYSICAL BASISRobinvale Plains bioregion is predominantly a narrowfl oodplain or gorge confi ned by the cliffs along the MurrayRiver - which is entrenched within older up-faultedCainozoic sedimentary rocks. Alluvium deposits fromthe Cainozoic period gave rise to the red brown earths,cracking clays and texture contrast soils. The soils supportRiverine Grassy Forest and Riverine Grassy ChenopodWoodland ecosystems.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 300 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 15-18˚CLAND USE HISTORYDue to fl ooding, much of this bioregion is unsuitablefor agricultural purposes other than grazing. Extensiveareas of what is now the Hattah-Kulkyne National Parkwere used for grazing and much of the local timber washarvested for fencing. Today, some grazing still occurs butthe majority of agricultural activities are growing grape,almond and citrus crops. The Murray River is a populararea for recreational activities with camping a predominantactivity along the river frontages during the holiday periods.10,0005,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 15.7Private land median score – 14.5[Statewide median score – 14.9]109

VICTORIAN ALPSKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 714,321 ha• Largely-intact landscape 702,452 ha – 98.3%• Fragmented landscape 11,868 ha – 1.7%The Victorian Alps is one of the least cleared bioregionswith most native vegetation classifi ed as largely intact. Theecological integrity of the Alpine ecosystems is relativelyunaltered. About 98% of the bioregion forms part of thelargely-intact landscape and of the remaining 2%, nearlyall is remnant native vegetation (90.1%). Of this threequarters(74%) is on public land and 27.9% is within thereserve system. Two fi ngers of the bioregion have smallareas of remnant native vegetation that are contiguouswith the largely-intact landscape and they remain highlyconnected and of good site condition. These areascorrespond to the Great Alpine Road and LimestoneRoad. Several isolated outliers of the bioregion within theHighlands – Northern Fall are also highly connected andof high quality. The proportion by area of patches 1,000+ha is substantially greater on public land compared toprivate land.9.9%16.1%27.9%46.1%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 10,688 ha – 90.1%• On public land [total] 8,777 ha – 74.0%In conservation reserves 3,311 ha – 27.9%In other public land categories 5,466 ha – 46.1%• On private land 1,910 ha – 16.1%• Not native vegetation 1,180 ha – 9.9%110

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land1,000• Private land7,5005,0002,50000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 50.7Private land median score – 42.0[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land5,000• Private land4,0003,0002,0001,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 16.8Private land median score – 15.9[Statewide median score – 14.9]BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Victorian Alps is part of a series of high plateauxand peaks along the Great Dividing Range. The geologyconsists of Palaeozoic deposits predominantly of graniticand basaltic origin that give rise to friable leached earths,loams and peaty soils.The bioregion consists of a complex mosaic of ecologicalcommunities determined by soils, climate and topography.The vegetation associated with the plateaux are SubalpineWoodland, Treeless Sub-alpine Mosaic and SubalpineGrassland EVCs. The upper slopes and generallysurrounding sub-alpine areas are dominated by MontaneDry Woodland, Montane Damp Forest, Montane WetForest and Montane Grassy Woodland. Many of thesevegetation types are extremely limited in extent, and oftenthe characteristic species of alpine biota are themselvesrestricted to only one or two of these EVCs.Many of Victoria’s major river systems, including theMurray, Goulburn, Ovens, King, Kiewa and Mitchell, havetheir sources in the alpine areas.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 800-1600 mmSnowfalls occur during winter.Daily mean temperature across the bioregion: 6-9˚CLAND USE HISTORYThe major European land-use activities are conservation,recreation (including commercial tourism), forestry,hydro electricity generation and water production andcatchment protection. The alpine areas have no largepermanent settlements except for the fi ve Alpine ResortAreas. Inaccessibility, rugged topography and the hostileclimate of the alpine area inhibited large-scale permanentsettlement, but the high plateaus have been used assummer pasture for cattle and sheep from the 1850s.Early settlements developed in the valleys during the goldrushes of the last century were abandoned. The expansionof forestry operations in the Victorian Alps from the 1940sled to the development of an extensive road systemthrough the area, which had enabled access for otherusers, particularly recreational users.111

MURRAY SCROLL BELTKEY FINDINGSTOTAL BIOREGION 116,144 ha• Largely-intact landscape Nil• Fragmented landscape 116,144 ha – 100%The Murray Scroll Belt, along with Murray Fans andRobinvale Plains form part of native vegetation corridoralong the Murray River. Due to the unsuitability of thefl oodplains for agriculture, much of the native vegetation ofthe Murray Scroll Belt is retained (90.1%) and comprisesof moderate to good condition vegetation. An exceptionis vegetation along the major water courses, fl oodplainsand billabongs which are of poor quality. Greatly reducedfl oodplain inundation, weed invasion, reduced canopycover and recruitment of trees has adversely impactedon the quality of the vegetation, but not the level ofconnectedness. Fifty percent of the native vegetationis on public land where nearly all is within conservationreserves (44.7%). Clearing of land has been fragmentedand restricted to the non-fl ood prone areas suitable forstock grazing. The Murray Scroll Belt is exceptional in thatsite condition scores are higher on private land than publicland. The proportion by area of patch sizes smaller than250 ha is greater on private land compared to public landand is slightly greater on public land for patches largerthan 1,000 ha.9.1%40.9% 44.8%5.2%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 105,551 ha – 90.9%• On public land [total] 58,040 ha – 50.0%In conservation reserves 51,963 ha – 44.8%In other public land categories 6,077 ha – 5.2%• On private land 47,511 ha – 40.9%• Not native vegetation 10,593 ha – 9.1%112

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land8,000• Private land6,0002,0001,00000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 44.7Private land median score – 46.7[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land25,000• Private landBIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Murray Scroll Belt is a river valley and associatedactive fl oodplains including billabongs, ephemeral lakes,swamps and meander belts. The Murray River forms avalley where fl uvial processes dominate. The vegetationcommunities within the bioregion are predominatelycharacterised by Riverine Grassy Woodland complexes.Higher terraces above the active fl oodplain supportvegetation dominated by saltbush and other succulents.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 200-300 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 15-18˚CLAND USE HISTORYPastoralists were the fi rst Europeans to settle in thebioregion. Land use is largely grazing, timber harvestingand recreation. Due to the susceptibility to fl ooding thebioregion has only been moderately cleared for agriculture.Intensive stock grazing and the spread of rabbits hascompacted soils and degraded vegetation.20,00015,00010,0005,00000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 17.8Private land median score – 17.2[Statewide median score – 14.9]113

WILSONS PROMONTORYKEY FINDINGSThe native vegetation cover within this bioregion is almostall largely-intact landscape with only a tiny proportion (619ha) of the bioregion fragmented. These areas comprisethe lighthouse area and the offshore islands. The intactcondition and remote nature of the bioregion means thatmost ecological processes have been little altered.TOTAL BIOREGION 40,361 ha• Largely-intact landscape 39,682 ha – 98.3%• Fragmented landscape 679 ha – 1.7%8.8%

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land20• Private land1510500 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 37.5Private land median score – n/a[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land500• Private land400300200100BIOPHYSICAL BASISWilsons Promontory bioregion is a spectacular area ofprominent granite hills and mountains with white sandybeaches surrounded by Bass Strait. The geology consistsof Palaeozoic granites and deep Quaternary sanddeposits. Vegetation types of the bioregion include MoistFoothill Forests, Coastal Scrubs, Heathlands and HeathyWoodlands. The fl ora and fauna of the bioregion havesimilarities to that of parts of the Bass Strait islands whichform the Furneaux IBRA region.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 900-1400 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 12-15˚CLAND USE HISTORYThe early European history of Wilsons Promontoryrelates to sealing and whaling activities within its waters– particularly along the eastern coastline at Sealers Cove.Other economic activities were timber harvesting andcattle grazing. Cattle grazing continued (largely confi nedto the Yanakie Isthmus), but was phased out in 1992.The entire bioregion lies within Wilsons PromontoryNational Park, Victoria’s oldest national park, whichwas established in 1898. Today Wilsons Promontory isa popular holiday destination and is extensively usedfor passive recreational activities including camping,bushwalking and diving.00 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 18.5Private land median score – n/a[Statewide median score – 14.9]115

HIGHLANDS – FAR EASTKEY FINDINGSThe Highlands – Far East is one of the least clearedbioregions and is of high biodiversity value. Nearly allnative vegetation within the bioregion is in the largely-intactlandscape. A tiny proportion of native vegetation fallswithin the fragmented landscape, and of this, nearly all(93.6%) occurs on public land.TOTAL BIOREGION 70,018 ha• Largely-intact landscape 69,135 ha – 98.7%• Fragmented landscape 883 ha – 1.3%6.3%3.2%1.9%88.6%FRAGMENTED LANDSCAPE• Native vegetation extent 827 ha – 93.7%• On public land [total] 799 ha – 90.5%In conservation reserves 17 ha – 1.9%In other public land categories 782 ha – 88.6%• On private land 28 ha – 3.2%• Not native vegetation 56 ha – 6.3%116

Distribution of site condition scoresArea (ha)• Public land200• Private land1501005000 20 40 60 80Site condition scoresPublic land median score – 50.6Private land median score – 50.2[Statewide median score – 36.8]Distribution of landscape context scoresArea (ha)• Public land800• Private land600400BIOPHYSICAL BASISThe Highlands – Far East bioregion covers a broadescarpment around Errinundra where the MonaroPlateau extends into Victoria and then falls sharply to thesouth-east. The bioregion consists of dissected uplandswith moderate to steep slopes and scarps, high andintermediate level plateaux, gorges and alluvial fl ats alongthe main valleys. The geology is predominantly Palaeozoicsediments and volcanics. The brown and red porousearths occur in the upper reaches and yellow, brown andred texture contrast soils graduate down the valleys and inlower rainfall areas.The vegetation is dominated by Wet Forest on the upperslopes in the high rainfall areas with Cool TemperateRainforest in the protected gullies. Montane Wet Forestoccurs on the most sheltered wet sites at higher montaneelevations and Damp Forest replaces Wet Forest at lowerelevations.Average annual rainfall across the bioregion: 700-1600 mmDaily mean temperature across the bioregion: 6-12˚CLAND USE HISTORYPrior to the 1980s timber harvesting in the bioregion was alimited industry but has since increased signifi cantly.20000 5 10 15 20Landscape context scoresPublic land median score – 16.4Private land median score – 16.3[Statewide median score – 14.9]117