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agricultural research can be brought about quickly with comparatively lessinvestment if its direction and application are clearly defined. The benefit-costratio can exceed other forms of investment. The country has sufficient manpowerand facilities to conduct user-oriented research, while many internationalresearch institutes, with their latest scientific advances, are ready to help.The participation of farmers in planning, implementing, and evaluatingagricultural sector plans are now well in place; what is needed is technologysuited to previously neglected areas. At present, the location-specific nature ofagricultural technology is widely recognized, and area-based research recommendationsare common. Identification and characterization of problemareas are usually done.As important as the area-based concept is the human-based approach toraise rice production and guarantee sustainability and equity. The need forbeneficiaries to participate has not been disputed, but the means of accomplishingthis has always been a source of disagreement among policymakers.Future research direction in the country should comprise at least twocomponents: 1) maintenance research to sustain progress already made, and2) farmer participatory research to overcome barriers in the present-daysituation. Resources for research should be allocated efficiently to take advantageof the existing institutional setup while allotting a reasonable amountfor the farmer participatory research component. This requirement is wellwithin the capability of the government.Farmer participatory research and extensionAgriculture is the largest and most productive sector of Burma’s economy, andit will remain so in the future. Investment in agricultural research is essential,since it can transform the economy. Experience has proven that the clientparticipatory approach to agricultural development planning, implementation,and evaluation results in remarkable success. The present situation offers agood opportunity to initiate a farmer participatory research and extensionprogram to substantially improve the quality of life of the rural poor. It ispremised on the farmers’ ability to help themselves.Selectivity and concentration have proven effective in diffusing technologiesfrom experimental stations to resource-rich or not-so-poor farmers who workin environments that closely resemble those in the research stations. The notso-poorfarmers in both favorable and unfavorable environments have alreadyenjoyed the fruits of the new technology. Resource-poor farmers miss out onthe new technology because it is not appropriate to their conditions. It isimperative that a technology adapted to the circumstances of resource-poorfarmers be developed. Involving them in the process right from the beginningensures productivity, stability, sustainability, and equity in such a rice productionsystem.IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE 131
Farmer participatory research is often mistaken as “on-farm trials” but thetwo differ completely. On-farm trials are designed by researchers who applytreatments that they think are necessary. Though the experiment is conductedin farmers’ fields, farmers are not involved in its design. The farmer participatoryresearch and extension approach has farmers working with scientists inanalyzing the biological, social, and economic conditions on the farms.Poor farmers always seek technology that will increase their income andimprove their lives while keeping their risks within a reasonable limit. Theyare so poor that they cannot afford to take great risks; when technology fails,they have nothing to fall back on. They have to face a long period of indebtednessonce the technology proves inappropriate.Farmer participatory research and extension will develop technology thatwill enable resource-poor farmers to secure better livelihood from agricultureby putting science to practice with a minimum of risks. This proposal will focuson farmers for whom such research and extension programs are made. Thisapproach should be tried on rice in view of the experience gained with theWTRPP. If it succeeds, it should cover other crops. The subsequent discussionwill focus on the proposed methodology to accomplish this goal.Formulation and implementation of the farmer participatory approachshould be done in five steps: selection of scientists, motivation of scientists,preprogram activities, drawing of a detailed research program, and transfer oftechnology.Selection of scientistsThe first step involves choosing skilled scientists with the right attitude for thework. Most scientists come from urban areas, but a few come from rural areas.Some scientists from the rural areas belong to families of resource-rich farmers.They usually do not understand the conditions surrounding resource-poorfarmers. Some, after returning from postgraduate studies, try to keep awayfrom the realities of rural life. They tend to restrict themselves to experimentalstations and to continue research initiated during their postgraduate studies,irrespective of local needs. Their reluctance to work in the villages and sharein the discomfort of village life underscores the need to instill in them the rightattitudes and values.Moreover, they have a low opinion of farmers. After specializing in aparticular discipline, their regard for other disciplines also declines. The needfor multidisciplinary approach is evident, and motivating scientists to interactwith others from other disciplines becomes necessary. Researchers rarely visitthe villages; when they do, they stay only for a very short time. Such short visitsdo not benefit either farmers or scientists. During these brief visits, it isprobable that scientists meet only the resource-rich farmers or adoptors oftechnology. Feedback information comes from technology adoptors who aremore concerned with improvement of a given technology. It is unlikely thatresource-poor farmers are given the chance to present their views.132 A CENTURY OF RICE IMPROVEMENT IN BURMA
Page 3 and 4:
The International Rice Research Ins
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Rice trading 29Rice milling 29Rice
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ForewordRice dominates Burma’s ec
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ice production in the last decade.
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CHAPTER IIntroductionBurma is situa
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1. Trends in rice area and producti
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3. Soil distribution.INTRODUCTION 5
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and the rest of the country in 1885
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Rice production growth during this
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4. Rice threshing with cattle.5. Ri
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7. Transplanting.Farmers classify r
Page 28:
8. States and Divisions (1-7 are di
Page 43:
Table 11. Rice mills, 1894-1934 (DA
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Rice area and productionAlthough th
Page 53 and 54:
Table 16. Rice production in select
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Tenants of State Agricultural BankA
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in 1960, representing a 17% increas
Page 59:
Table 20. Summary of extension acti
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Table 24. Rice procurement by diffe
Page 64 and 65:
This trade reduction severely affec
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conditions and a weak international
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the design, implementation, and eva
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Table 27 indicates the areas plante
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The coastal zone comprised four ric
Page 78 and 79:
In the meantime, local researchers
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Table 35. Rice area planted, by gra
Page 83 and 84:
All fertilizers were imported until
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points, 3) availability of cash amo
Page 87 and 88:
hispa Hispa armigera. Though annual
Page 89 and 90:
The amounts of agricultural loans g
Page 91 and 92:
from double-cropped areas (Table 44
Page 93 and 94: when investment in the agricultural
Page 96 and 97: The program brought research and ex
Page 98 and 99: Table 46. Average area of responsib
Page 100 and 101: established practice among farmers,
Page 102 and 103: 12. Voluntary labor harvesting rice
Page 104 and 105: of harvesting. It sought voluntary
Page 106 and 107: nents that a larger project would r
Page 108 and 109: Table 48. Changes in area planted t
Page 110 and 111: Table 50. Average yield and product
Page 112 and 113: Results of analysisOf the variables
Page 114 and 115: Of the 19 variables used, 11 were s
Page 116 and 117: weather that it influenced rice pro
Page 118 and 119: Table 54. Present level of technolo
Page 120 and 121: size of holdings, 40% of the prize
Page 122 and 123: average yield at that time was 2.20
Page 124 and 125: Table 59. Monthly transactions of t
Page 126 and 127: Table 61. Irrigated areas for rice,
Page 128 and 129: Table 62. Tillage operation by trac
Page 130 and 131: 18. AFPTC rice procurement center.A
Page 132 and 133: Table 65. Annual rice procurement (
Page 134 and 135: for seeds; still others sold their
Page 136 and 137: primarily to help achieve the AFPTC
Page 138 and 139: Table 67. Annual rice production an
Page 140 and 141: Table 68. Comparison of paid-out co
Page 142 and 143: CHAPTER VImplications for the futur
Page 146 and 147: Motivation of scientistsUnder these
Page 148 and 149: or as individuals. Research is to b
Page 150 and 151: CHAPTER VIConclusionsBurma’s econ
Page 152 and 153: References citedAdas M (1974) The B
Page 154: SRUB—The socialist Republic of th
Page 157 and 158: Appendix 1 continuedSown area Produ
Page 159 and 160: Appendix II continuedShareRice a Al
Page 161 and 162: Appendix IV continuedYear Exports Y
Page 163 and 164: Appendix VIcontinuedVariable Symbol
Page 165 and 166: All combined1977-84 1977-78 1978-79
Page 167 and 168: Appendix VIII. Correlation coeffici
Page 170 and 171: IndexAdas, M 6Africa 125, 137Agricu
Page 172 and 173: farmers 6-9, 13, 18, 23, 25-26, 29,
Page 174 and 175: Okpo Small Loan Department110, 111O
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