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this period, credit could be considered adequate in meeting rice cultivationrequirements in spite of the huge area and the large number of farmersinvolved. The adequacy of the amount of loan could not, in itself, be taken assatisfactory. It should be disbursed on time to cover the partial cost of riceproduction. In earlier periods, loans were often given late, usually after theplanting season, and farmers just spent the money for nonproductive purposes.This misuse of credit was one of the important reasons for low repayment.The MAB had contributed substantially to higher rice production, butthere remained some areas that needed improvement. Credit availability in arelatively adequate amount influenced the decision of farmers to adoptmodern technology. Without such a large amount of agricultural loans available,rapid rice production growth would not have been possible.Draft cattleDraft cattle continued to be the main source of power, providing more than90% of the requirement. In rice production, draft cattle were involved fromtillage operation to threshing and farm transport. During this time, smallpower tillers were introduced, but their use was limited because of their highrepair and maintenance costs and fuel needs. Cattle would remain the mainsource of power in Burmese agriculture in the foreseeable future.In the beginning of the period, the cattle population stood at 3.284 millionhead, rising to 6.516 million head in 1985, with an average annual growth rateof 2.2%. This growth rate surpassed that of gross sown area, resulting in lessload share with time. The cattle population level was, therefore, consideredfavorable to crop production.Table 44 shows the gross sown area and the corresponding cattle populationin different years. Gross sown area increased from 7 million ha in thebeginning of the period to more than 10 million ha. The increase came mainlyTable 44. Gross sown area and draft cattle In selected years, 1960-85. aGrossDraftYear sown area cattle(000 ha) (000 head)Load(ha/pair)196019651970197519801982198419856,9358,7759,0409,44210,0389,91010,51610,3853,2844,2424,1185,0185,7346,1376,3666,5164.234.144.393.763.502.233.303.19a Sources: For 1960 data, RGUB 1966; for 1965 and 1970, SRUB 1973; for 1975, SRUB 1979;for 1980 and 1982, SRUB 1984; and for 1984 and 1985, SRUB 1987.RICE PRODUCTION UNDER THE SOCIALIST REPUBLIC GOVERNMENT 77
from double-cropped areas (Table 44). Cattle also rose from 3.3 million to 6.5million head, an almost 100% increase. Cattle growth exceeded cropped areagrowth—the load factor of 4.23 ha/pair decreased to 3.19 in a period of two anda half decades. (For yearly data, see Appendix III.)This favorable cattle population level, combined with the short growthduration of MVs, increased cropping intensity in the country to an appreciableextent. A pair of cattle at the end of the rice season appeared exhausted; usingthem for the second crop was simply unreasonable. The farmer either gotanother pair of cattle or he used a tractor or power tiller to undertake theoperations efficiently. Moreover, cattle manure was an important nutrientsource supplementing scarce fertilizer. Farmers usually applied farmyardmanure to rice nurseries.Burmese farmers had a strong attachment to the animals and spentsubstantial amount of money for feed (rice bran, oil cake, or a mixture of thetwo), almost the same amount they spent for their own food.Since 1970, the MAB had provided loans for the purchase of draft cattleand carts. These loans (usually six-year duration) had to be repaid in six equalinstallments at low interest (12% per annum). The cattle purchased werepledged as surety. The size of the loan depended on the local price of draftcattle—between 2000 and 3000 kyats/animal. The cart would cost about 2000kyats and the loans for cattle and cart were often administered together.However, a separate loan for either cattle or cart was possible. There wereloans to acquire power tillers that would relieve the load of cattle and increasefarm power, but these were not very popular. Aside from the maintenance andfuel problems of power tillers, the favorable cattle population reduced theneed for the machines.The government lifted the ban on the slaughter of cattle to stabilize meatand fish prices. A close watch by the People’s Councils on the indiscriminateslaughter of cattle at various levels averted the depletion of cattle stock. In spiteof the adequate number of cattle in the country, a great potential for furtherimproving this important agricultural asset existed. Population pressure onland was relatively low, and there were many areas that could support cattleraising with success. Climatic conditions in these areas—a critical factor forsuch an endeavor—were most appropriate for feed and fodder production.Additionally, many crop byproducts could provide high-quality feed. Encouragementof cattle breeding in these areas, together with proper veterinary care,would further enhance the draft cattle position in the country.Support servicesStronger support services characterized the period. Sufficiently trainedmanpower and reasonably equipped laboratories—results of internationalassistance—contributed greatly to agricultural development. The institu-78 A CENTURY OF RICE IMPROVEMENT IN BURMA
Page 3 and 4:
The International Rice Research Ins
Page 5 and 6:
Rice trading 29Rice milling 29Rice
Page 8:
ForewordRice dominates Burma’s ec
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ice production in the last decade.
Page 14 and 15:
CHAPTER IIntroductionBurma is situa
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1. Trends in rice area and producti
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3. Soil distribution.INTRODUCTION 5
Page 20 and 21:
and the rest of the country in 1885
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Rice production growth during this
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4. Rice threshing with cattle.5. Ri
Page 26 and 27:
7. Transplanting.Farmers classify r
Page 28:
8. States and Divisions (1-7 are di
Page 43: Table 11. Rice mills, 1894-1934 (DA
Page 51 and 52: Rice area and productionAlthough th
Page 53 and 54: Table 16. Rice production in select
Page 55 and 56: Tenants of State Agricultural BankA
Page 57 and 58: in 1960, representing a 17% increas
Page 59: Table 20. Summary of extension acti
Page 62 and 63: Table 24. Rice procurement by diffe
Page 64 and 65: This trade reduction severely affec
Page 66: conditions and a weak international
Page 69 and 70: the design, implementation, and eva
Page 71 and 72: Table 27 indicates the areas plante
Page 73 and 74: The coastal zone comprised four ric
Page 78 and 79: In the meantime, local researchers
Page 80 and 81: Table 35. Rice area planted, by gra
Page 83 and 84: All fertilizers were imported until
Page 85 and 86: points, 3) availability of cash amo
Page 87 and 88: hispa Hispa armigera. Though annual
Page 89: The amounts of agricultural loans g
Page 93 and 94: when investment in the agricultural
Page 96 and 97: The program brought research and ex
Page 98 and 99: Table 46. Average area of responsib
Page 100 and 101: established practice among farmers,
Page 102 and 103: 12. Voluntary labor harvesting rice
Page 104 and 105: of harvesting. It sought voluntary
Page 106 and 107: nents that a larger project would r
Page 108 and 109: Table 48. Changes in area planted t
Page 110 and 111: Table 50. Average yield and product
Page 112 and 113: Results of analysisOf the variables
Page 114 and 115: Of the 19 variables used, 11 were s
Page 116 and 117: weather that it influenced rice pro
Page 118 and 119: Table 54. Present level of technolo
Page 120 and 121: size of holdings, 40% of the prize
Page 122 and 123: average yield at that time was 2.20
Page 124 and 125: Table 59. Monthly transactions of t
Page 126 and 127: Table 61. Irrigated areas for rice,
Page 128 and 129: Table 62. Tillage operation by trac
Page 130 and 131: 18. AFPTC rice procurement center.A
Page 132 and 133: Table 65. Annual rice procurement (
Page 134 and 135: for seeds; still others sold their
Page 136 and 137: primarily to help achieve the AFPTC
Page 138 and 139: Table 67. Annual rice production an
Page 140 and 141:
Table 68. Comparison of paid-out co
Page 142 and 143:
CHAPTER VImplications for the futur
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agricultural research can be brough
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Motivation of scientistsUnder these
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or as individuals. Research is to b
Page 150 and 151:
CHAPTER VIConclusionsBurma’s econ
Page 152 and 153:
References citedAdas M (1974) The B
Page 154:
SRUB—The socialist Republic of th
Page 157 and 158:
Appendix 1 continuedSown area Produ
Page 159 and 160:
Appendix II continuedShareRice a Al
Page 161 and 162:
Appendix IV continuedYear Exports Y
Page 163 and 164:
Appendix VIcontinuedVariable Symbol
Page 165 and 166:
All combined1977-84 1977-78 1978-79
Page 167 and 168:
Appendix VIII. Correlation coeffici
Page 170 and 171:
IndexAdas, M 6Africa 125, 137Agricu
Page 172 and 173:
farmers 6-9, 13, 18, 23, 25-26, 29,
Page 174 and 175:
Okpo Small Loan Department110, 111O
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