Bogumil Terminski Environmentally-Induced Displacement ... - Cedem

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disaster-induced displacement as a special (but not fully autonomous) categoryof environmentally-induced displacement. In the next part of this section I willtry to characterise the main reasons for the environmental changes which poserisks to human societies (representing environmentally-induced displacementcatalysts.)One increasingly frequent form of forced migration in recent years has beendisplacement associated with the creation of national parks, natural reserves,or other types of ecologically protected areas. In my view, this category ofpopulation displacement is not a form of environmentally-induceddisplacement. It seems rather to represent one form of development-induceddisplacement. <strong>Displacement</strong> associated with the creation of national parks is adirect consequence of the industrialisation process. The resulting need toprotect natural heritage and biodiversity is therefore a primary reason of thecreation of national parks.Forced resettlement directed by state authorities following the construction ofdams (such as China’s Three Gorges Dam, Sardar Sarovar in India, MeroweDam in Sudan or Akosombo Dam in Ghana) is one of the most frequent formsof development-induced displacement. Forced displacement caused by theenvironmental side-effects of major investments definitely represent adifferent category. (These types of displacements normally take place after thecompletion of major investments). When the construction of a dam producesnegative effects on the functioning of coastal residents (for instance, bydecreasing the amount of fish in surrounding bodies of water), the residentsare often forced to change their place of abode. These people, therefore, arenot development-induced displaced people but rather environmentally-induceddisplaced people. (Their main reason for a change of residence was not thedirect result of dam construction, but was instead the worsening environmentalliving conditions in their habitat). Once again, there should be differentiation
etween two categories of resettlement: 1) resettlement (displacement) causedby human activity, and 2) resettlement (displacement) caused by naturalfactors.The amount of environmentally induced displaced people is increasing eachyear. In 1995, their number was estimated at more than 25 million people. 82 Atthe moment, we can talk about 10 million environmental refugees in Africaand several additional millions in other parts of the world. According toestimates by the UN University for Environment and Human Security, thenumber of people permanently displaced by environmental changes at the endof 2010 would be more than 50 million. According to researchers at ColumbiaUniversity, over 200 million people will be forced to migrate forenvironmental reasons before 2050. Only with sustained effort will we be ableto counteract the predicted magnitude of the risk in subsequent years 83 .Throughout history, environmental (not political) motivations have been a keycatalyst for human migration. Progressive environmental change was one ofthe main causes of the spread of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens sapiens outof the African continent (the so-called theory of the African exodus). Changesoccurring in the environment also contributed to the fall of great powers.Desertification of soils and deteriorating living conditions in Central Asiawere the main cause of the Huns European invasion and resultingdisplacement of the Germanic tribes, leading eventually to the collapse of theWestern Roman Empire. The volcanic eruption of Santorini around 1600 BCEplayed a large role in the cultural formation of the Mediterranean. Accordingto some hypotheses, it has led to the collapse of two great material cultures inthis area: Cycladic and Minoan. In the absence of written sources from that eraand with the difficulties involved in the analysis of archaeological material, it82Myers N., “Environmental Refugees. A Growing Phenomenon of the 21 st Century”,http://www.envirosecurity.org/.83J. Vaughn, Environmental Politics: Domestic and Global Dimensions, Cengage Learning, 2011, p. 331; seealso F. Renaud, J.J Bogardi, O. Dun, K. Warner, Control, Adapt or Flee. How to Face Environmental Migration,2007, p. 15; see F. Gemenne, “Why the numbers don’t add up: A review of estimates and predictions of peopledisplaced by environmental changes”, Global Environmental Change, 2011.
Page 4 and 5: TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction .....
Page 6 and 7: whole population in developing coun
Page 10: PART ONE:ENVIRONMENTALLY-INDUCED DI
Page 16: climate change 19 . As noticed by M
Page 19 and 20: (catastrophes) as one of the prereq
Page 21 and 22: esidence refers to the environmenta
Page 23 and 24: early 20th century. Of particular i
Page 25 and 26: According to Graeme Hugo, environme
Page 27 and 28: Climate Change uses the term “for
Page 31 and 32: In 1988, Jodi Jacobson from Worldwa
Page 33 and 34: According to Norman Myers, environm
Page 35 and 36: Some authors linked the phenomenon
Page 37 and 38: of the problem is to adopt a conven
Page 39 and 40: to detach the general category of e
Page 41: and “environmental refugees”),
Page 45 and 46: nearly a million victims) 85 .Reaso
Page 47 and 48: areas of Africa (e.g. Sudan, Chad,
Page 49 and 50: disasters. Every year, floods lead
Page 51 and 52: damage to the country’s most impo
Page 53 and 54: international organisations for sev
Page 55 and 56: PART TWO:THE MOST COMMON CAUSES OFE
Page 57 and 58: OECD General Typology of Natural Di
Page 59 and 60: The Classification of TheCauses of
Page 61 and 62: (with a coast equal to or lower tha
Page 63 and 64: continues to be a major problem fac
Page 65 and 66: killed), Gujarat in India in 2001 (
Page 67 and 68: take diverse in nature. Very often
Page 69 and 70: the hurricane (368,000 were displac
Page 71 and 72: that irreversible consequences of f
Page 73 and 74: areas of the world continue to cons
Page 75: Studies undertaken on that issue, o
Page 78 and 79: the author) is thus of a brief char
Page 80 and 81: Middle East, and North and Central
Page 82 and 83: London, 2000.Cubides F., Domínguez
Page 84 and 85: Measures of Equalization?, Grinn Ve
Page 86 and 87: Werner D. (ed.), Biological resourc
Page 88 and 89: Springer, Berlin, 2003, pp. 35-145.
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Page 92 and 93:
Faso & Presses universitaires de Ou
Page 94 and 95:
Institute of Policy Studies, School
Page 96 and 97:
San Marco P., “Migrations transsa
Page 98 and 99:
for the world economy, Edward Elgar
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Aung T., Singh A., Prasad A., "Sea
Page 102 and 103:
1989, pp. 73-75.Black R., "Fifty Ye
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Ollitrault S., "De la sauvegarde de
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Piantoni F., "Les recompositions te
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Risse M., "The Right to Relocation:
Page 134 and 135:
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Thomas D.S.G., Twyman C., "Equity a
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