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Urban Infrastructure: Bedrock of ProsperityIt is possible to identify the specific contributions adequateinfrastructure can make to the prosperity of cities, but it must beremembered that they are interrelated and interact with one anotherin a variety of ways. As perceived by experts participating in theUN-Habitat survey, these contributions are the following (by orderof decreasing importance): economic growth; facilitating mobility;improving access to health and education; improving quality of life;steering spatial expansion; environmental quality; improving slumconditions and reducing poverty; and reducing spatial disparities.These eight types of contribution are presented in the charts for thefour regions under review.Economic Growth: Infrastructure plays a crucial role in supportingeconomic growth, and it is worth noting that the reverse causalrelationship also holds – that is, infrastructure benefits fromeconomic growth. Infrastructure contributes to growth throughenhanced productivity of the factors of production. Indeed between1990 and 2005, improved infrastructure contributed one per centto per capita economic growth in Africa, and 1.2 per cent inAsia. 48 In Africa, the greatest impact has been attributed totelecommunications and, to a lesser extent, roads.Facilitating Mobility: Seamless movement within and betweencities thanks to efficient mass transit systems is essential to theproper functionality and prosperity of cities. Cities that have deployedsustainable transport policies to enhance mobility have reaped hugeadvantages that positively impact on the other ‘spokes’ of prosperity.In Bogotá and Curitiba, for instance, BRT makes both cities morelivable in very tangible ways, including reducing traffic congestion,decreasing travel times and costs, reducing energy consumption andimproving environmental quality.Access to health and education: Infrastructure facilitates accessto health and education, which are essential components ofhuman development and feature prominently among MillenniumDevelopment Goals. Healthy children learn better and healthyadults work better – both being major assets to the city. Educationis crucial to empowerment, reducing poverty and enhancingproductivity. Cities with a healthier, better-educated workforce aremore likely to be productive and competitive.policySteering spatial expansion: Infrastructure can steer the spatialexpansion of a city, facilitating more compact urban developmentand integrating different land uses. This urban form is deemedto be efficient, inclusive and sustainable in four different ways:(1) the costs of infrastructure are cheaper; (2) access to servicesand facilities is improved; (3) the livelihoods of the urban poor areenhanced; and (4) social segregation is reduced.Environmental quality: Many developing country cities arecharacterized by inadequate water supply and squalid conditions interms of sanitation. These two components of infrastructure are vitalto improved environmental conditions in cities, as they facilitate aclean and pollution-free environment. On top of this, flood-controlinfrastructure safeguards urban areas against erosion, flooding,landslides and disasters.Improving slum conditions and reducing poverty: Infrastructurecan contribute to the prosperity of cities through improved slumconditions and reducing poverty. Providing adequate infrastructurefor roads, water, sanitation and electricity can reduce the healthburden faced by slum dwellers, delivering major benefits in terms ofenvironmental quality.Reducing spatial disparities: Infrastructure can reduce spatialdisparities, particularly in uncontrolled and un-serviced peri-urbanareas, connecting them to consolidated parts of the city.policyThe provision of infrastructure must take intoconsideration the needs of women.Beneficiary communities must be fullyinvolved in the design, provision andmaintenance of infrastructure.Improving quality of life: Infrastructure can improve quality oflife in a variety of ways, including: enhancing safety and security,especially for youth and women; and expanding the provision ofpublic goods to enhance the city’s appeal.57
State of the World’s Cities 2012/2013Endnotes1 Choguill, C. (1996) “Ten steps to sustainable infrastructure”, Habitat International, Vol.20(3), pp. 389-4044; Teriman, S., T. Yigitcanlar, and S. Mayere (2010) ‘Sustainableurban infrastructure development in south east Asia : evidence from Hong Kong,Kuala Lumpur and Singapore’ in Yigitcanlar, T. (ed.) Sustainable Urban and RegionalInfrastructure Development : Technologies, Applications and Management, IGI Global,Hershey, Pennsylvania2 Lall, R., R. Anand and A. Rastogi (2010) ‘Developing physical Infrastructure: Acomparative perspective on the experience of China and India’, in Gerhaeusser K.,Iwasaki, Y. and V. B. Tulasidhar, (eds) Resurging Asian Giants’ Asian DevelopmentBank, Manila, pp.57-114.3 Fay, M. and M. Morrison (2005) Infrastructure in Latin America and the Caribbean:Recent Developments and Key Challenges, World Bank, Washington,DC.4 Foster, V., and C. Briceno-Garmendia (2010) Africa’s Infrastructure: A Time forTransformation, World Bank, Washington, DC.5 Belliapa, S.G. (2011) City Report on Bangalore. Unpublished UN-Habitat backgroundstudy for “State of the World’s Cities Report 2012/13”6 Harris, C (2008) “India Leads Developing Nations in Private Sector Investment”,Gridlines, No.3, March 2008, http://www.pppinindia.com/pdf/gridlines.pdf7 Latin American Herald Tribune (2011) ‘Cuban Capital Faces Worst Water Shortage in50 Years’, Latin American Herald Tribune, http://laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId=391553&CategoryId=145108 López , M (2011) Water Distribution as an Indicator of Social Inequality: The Case ofMedellín, Colombia, http://www.centrodametropole.org.br/static/uploads/marcela_l.pdf9 Shabou, A., N. Soboh, K. Jalouka, and D. A. Thaib (2011) City Report on Amman.Unpublished UN-Habitat background study for “State of the World’s Cities Report2012/2013”10 Karim, S. S.A. (2011) City Report on Basra. Unpublished UN-Habitat background studyfor “State of the World’s Cities Report 2012/2013”11 Takechi, A (2010) Basrah Water Supply from viewpoint of Its Water Sources, http://www.waterforum.jp/jpn/iraq/doc/expert_meeting/session/4_2.pdf12 Although the region is the least provided in the world, with just 1.4 per cent of theplanet renewable freshwater. {Roudi-Fahimi, F., L. Creel and R. M. De Souza (2002)Finding the Balance: Population and Water Scarcity in the Middle East and NorthAfrica, MENA Policy Brief, Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC}13 The Arab State’s Region is host to 65 of the world’s 100 largest desalination plants.{Pacific Institute (2011) The World’s Water Volume 7: The Biennial Report onFreshwater Resources, Table 21, http://www.worldwater.org/data.html}14 The economic costs of traffic congestion are staggering: in the US in 2010 itwas put at $101 billion in terms of lost productivity and wasted fuel, or $713 percommuter per year; in Mauritius, traffic congestion in cities costs the economy 1.3per cent of GDP. {African Economic Outlook (2011) Mauritius: Overview, http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/southern-africa/mauritius/}15 Kumar , A., and F. Barrett (2008) Stuck in Traffic: Urban Transport in Africa, WorldBank, Washington, DC16 Kumar,A. (2011) Understanding the Emerging Role Of Motorcycles in AfricanCities: A Political Economy Perspective, Sub-Saharan Africa Transport PolicyProgram Discussion Paper No. 13, World Bank, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTAFRSUBSAHTRA/Resources/1513929-1262811948762/DP13-Role-Motorcycles.pdf17 In 2007, Lagos had over 100,000 minibuses and 200,000 commercial motorcyclesdirectly employing 500,000 people. Kumar (2011)18 Kumar and Barrett (2008), op. cit.19 The network increased from 95,000 to 208,000 km from 1990 to 2003. Pucher etal (2007)20 McKinsey Global Institute (2009) Preparing for China’s Urban Billion, McKinsey andCompany.21 World Bank (2002) Cities on the Move: A World Bank Urban Transport StrategyReview, World Bank, Washington, DC.22 Pucher, J., Z. Peng, N. Mittal, Y. Zhu,and N. Korattyswaroopam (2007) ‘Urban transporttrends and policies in China and India: Impacts of rapid Economic growth’, TransportReviews, Vol. 27 (4), pp. 379–41023 Uddin, A. (2009) ‘Traffic Congestion in Indian Cities: Challenges of a Rising Power’,paper presented at the conference Kyoto of the Cities, Naples, March 26-28,2009, http://www.visionwebsite.eu/UserFiles/File/filedascaricare/Scientifci%20Partners,Papers(Kyoto)/Draft_koc_Azeem%20Uddin.pdf24 HPEC (2011) Report on Indian Urban Infrastructure and Services,National Institute ofUrban Affairs, New Delhi25 Uddin, A (2009) op.cit.26 Estimated from World Bank (2011)27 Canassa, H. (2008) ‘São Paulo Traffic Jams Mean Lost Business, Stress, Helicopters’,Bloomberg, July 14, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aAwzOeXmIxgk28 Vicentini, V. L.(2010) ‘Lessons from urban transport in Latin America and theCaribbean’, presentation at the 2010 ADB Transport Forum, May 25-27, Manila;Luoma, J., M. Sivak and S. Zielinski (2010) The Future of Personal Transportation inMegacities of the World, Transportation Research Institute, University of Michigan,Ann Arbor29 Coyula, M. (2011) City Report on Havana. Unpublished UN-Habitat background studyfor “State of the World’s Cities Report 2012/2013”30 Perez, F. (2011) City Report on Guadajara. Unpublished UN-Habitat background studyfor “State of the World’s Cities Report 2012/2013”.31 ESCWA (2009) Transport for Sustainable Development in the Arab Region: Measures,Progress Achieved, Challenges and Policy Framework, United Nations, New York,http://www.uncclearn.org/sites/www.uncclearn.org/files/unescwa14.pdf32 World Bank (2011) World Development Indicators, World Bank, Washington, DC.33 Shariff, O. (2007) ‘Dubai Traffic Woes Inflict Losses of Dh4.6b a Year’, Gulf News,December 13, http://gulfnews.com/business/shipping/dubai-traffic-woes-inflictlosses-of-dh4-6b-a-year-1.75892;Raouf, M. A. (2009)’Towards sustainabletransportation’, Gulf News, September 18, http://gulfnews.com/opinions/columnists/towards-sustainable-transportation-1.53987234 Kollock, P. (2010) ‘Still Sitting in Beirut Traffic’, NOW Lebanon, May 5 http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArchiveDetails.aspx?ID=16612135 Shabou, A., N. Soboh, K. Jalouka, and D. A. Thaib (2011) op. cit.36 Raouf, M. A. (2009) op. cit.37 Al-Rawashdeh, A. (2011) “New bus system aims to reduce Amman’s trafficcongestion”, Al-Shorfa.com, January 26, http://al-shorfa.com/en_GB/articles/meii/features/main/2011/01/26/feature-0238 International Telecommunication Union (2010) World Telecommunication/ICTIndicators Database, http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/statistics/39 GSM Association (2011a) Asia Pacific Mobile Observatory 2011, GSMA, London40 Aker, J. C. and I. M. Mbiti, (2010) ‘Mobile telephones and economic development inAfrica’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, Vol. 24(3), pp. 207-23241 GSM Association (2011b) Africa Mobile Observatory 2011, GSMA, London42 Philip, J. T. (2009) ‘Average Urban Teledensity Crosses 100% Mark’, The EconomicTimes, December 12, http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2009-12-12/news/28416388_1_cent-mark-mobile-connections-teledensity43 Centre for Livable Cities (2011) City Report on Singapore. Unpublished UN-Habitatbackground study for “State of the World’s Cities Report 2012/2013”44 GSM Association (2011a) op. cit.45 Fernández-Ardèvol, M. (2010) ‘Household access to mobile telephony in LatinAmerica’, in Sevensson, J. and G. Wicander, (eds.): Proceedings of the 2ndInternational Conference on M4D,Mobile Communication Technology forDevelopment, 10-11 November, Kampala, Uganda, pp. 60-69.46 GSM Association (2011c) Latin American Mobile Observatory 2011, GSMA London47 Telecommunications and Regulatory Authority (2011) UAE TelecommunicationsSector Developments and Indicators, 2007 –2010.48 Calderón, C (2008) “Infrastructure and growth in Africa”, Policy Research WorkingPaper 4914, World Bank, Washington, DC58
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