Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
A Textbook of Clinical Pharmacology and ... - clinicalevidence
A Textbook of Clinical Pharmacology and ... - clinicalevidence
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ANXIETY 107<br />
<strong>and</strong> daytime sleeping should be discouraged. Increased<br />
daytime exercise improves sleep at night.<br />
• Alcohol should be avoided because it causes rebound<br />
restlessness <strong>and</strong> sleep disturbance after the initial sedation<br />
has worn off. Tolerance <strong>and</strong> dependence develop rapidly.<br />
It also causes dehydration (gueule de bois) <strong>and</strong> other<br />
unpleasant manifestations of hangover.<br />
SPECIAL PROBLEMS AND SPECIAL GROUPS<br />
JET LAG<br />
Jet lag consists of fatigue, sleep disturbances, headache <strong>and</strong> difficulty<br />
in concentrating. It is due to mismatching of the body clock<br />
(circadian dysrhythmia) against a new time environment with<br />
its own time cues (Zeitgebers). Resetting the internal clock is hastened<br />
by conforming to the new time regime. Thus, one should<br />
rest in a dark room at night, even if not tired, <strong>and</strong> eat, work <strong>and</strong><br />
socialize during the day. Sufferers should not allow themselves<br />
to sleep during the day (easier said than done!). Taking hypnotics<br />
at night can make things worse if sleepiness is experienced<br />
the next day. However, short-acting benzodiazepines may be<br />
effective if taken before going to bed for two or three nights.<br />
Melatonin is of uncertain usefulness but may help sleep<br />
patterns, <strong>and</strong> improves daytime well-being if taken in the<br />
evening. It is not generally available in the UK, although it is<br />
in several other countries including the USA.<br />
NIGHT WORK<br />
Night work causes more serious sleep difficulties than jet lag<br />
because hypnotics cannot be used for long periods. Moreover,<br />
drug-induced sleep during the day precludes family <strong>and</strong> other<br />
non-work activities. A better strategy is to allow the subject to<br />
have a short, non-drug-induced sleep during the night shift.<br />
This improves efficiency towards the end of the night shift <strong>and</strong><br />
reduces sleep needs during the day.<br />
CHILDREN<br />
The use of hypnotics in children is not recommended, except<br />
in unusual situations (e.g. on the night before an anticipated<br />
unpleasant procedure in hospital). Hypnotics are sometimes<br />
used for night terrors. Children are, however, prone to experience<br />
paradoxical excitement with these drugs. Promethazine,<br />
an antihistamine which is available without a prescription, is<br />
often used, but is of doubtful benefit.<br />
ELDERLY<br />
Anxiety <strong>and</strong> insomnia are prevalent in the elderly, for a variety<br />
of psychological <strong>and</strong> physical reasons. As a rule, elderly<br />
patients are more sensitive to the action of central nervous system<br />
(CNS) depressant drugs than younger patients, <strong>and</strong> the<br />
pharmacokinetics of these drugs are also altered such that their<br />
action is more prolonged with increasing age. Hypnotics<br />
increase the risk of falls <strong>and</strong> nocturnal confusion. Even shortacting<br />
drugs can lead to ataxia <strong>and</strong> hangover the next morning.<br />
In the treatment of insomnia, when short-term treatment<br />
with drugs is considered necessary, short-acting hypnotics<br />
should be used in preference to long-acting drugs but with<br />
explanation from the outset that these will not be continued<br />
long term. (Short-acting benzodiazepines have the greatest<br />
abuse potential.) Insomnia occurring in the context of documented<br />
psychiatric disorders or dementia may be better<br />
treated with low doses of antipsychotic drugs.<br />
Case history<br />
A 42-year-old man with chronic depression presents to his<br />
general practitioner with a long history of difficulty in sleeping<br />
at night, associated with early morning waking. His general<br />
practitioner had made the diagnosis of depression <strong>and</strong><br />
referred him some years previously for cognitive behavioural<br />
therapy, but this had not resulted in significant improvement<br />
of his symptoms. His difficulty in sleeping is now interfering<br />
with his life quite significantly, so that he feels tired most<br />
of the day <strong>and</strong> is having difficulty holding down his job as<br />
an insurance clerk. The GP decides that he would benefit<br />
from taking temazepam at night; he prescribes him this,<br />
but says that he will only give it for a maximum of a month,<br />
as he does not want his patient to become addicted.<br />
Question 1<br />
Is this the correct management?<br />
Question 2<br />
What would be a suitable alternative treatment?<br />
Answer 1<br />
No. Although the benzodiazepine might help in the short<br />
term, it does not provide the patient with a long-term solution,<br />
<strong>and</strong> does not tackle the root cause of his insomnia.<br />
Answer 2<br />
A more appropriate treatment would be with a regular<br />
dose of a sedating antidepressant drug, for example amitriptyline<br />
at night.<br />
ANXIETY<br />
Anxiety is fear <strong>and</strong> is usually a normal reaction. Pathological<br />
anxiety is fear that is sufficiently severe as to be disabling. Such<br />
a reaction may be a response to a threatening situation (e.g. having<br />
to make a speech) or to a non-threatening event (e.g. leaving<br />
one’s front door <strong>and</strong> going into the street). Episodes of paroxysmal<br />
severe anxiety associated with severe autonomic symptoms<br />
(e.g. chest pain, dyspnoea <strong>and</strong> palpitations) are termed panic<br />
attacks <strong>and</strong> often accompany a generalized anxiety disorder.<br />
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND MANAGEMENT OF<br />
ANXIETY<br />
• Distinguish anxiety as a functional disturbance from a<br />
manifestation of organic brain disease or somatic illness<br />
(e.g. systemic lupus erythematosus).<br />
• Assess the severity of any accompanying depression,<br />
which may need treatment in itself.<br />
• Most patients are best treated with cognitive therapy,<br />
relaxation techniques <strong>and</strong> simple psychotherapy <strong>and</strong><br />
without drugs.<br />
• Some patients are improved by taking regular exercise.<br />
• In severely anxious patients who are given anxiolytic drugs,<br />
these are only administered for a short period (up to two<br />
to four weeks) because of the risk of dependence.