Connecting Global Priorities Biodiversity and Human Health

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and groundwater (Bound and Voulvoulis 2005; Musson and Townsend 2009). While the reported concentrations of APIs are generally low (i.e.
APIs with similar modes of action) or synergistic effects (interaction between different APIs). The kinds of potential impacts range from acutely toxic events, including death for some species (notably invertebrates), and sublethal impacts, including behavioural, endocrine, immunological, reproductive and mutagenic effects. This often occurs in a context where wildlife is exposed to other forms of pollution or disturbance, so that APIs should be seen as adding to a larger environmental burden. Evidence for the ecotoxicological impacts of even very low concentrations of APIs in the environment has been noted in some studies. For human APIs, a major area of concern is the impact of synthetic hormones and hormonally active pharmaceutical compounds. These add to an already significant environmental burden of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), which comprise a wider range of chemicals, including various detergents, flame retardants, pesticides, plant hormones and others, as well as naturally occurring hormones that enter sewage treatment works. The ecological impacts of EDCs as a wider group of substances include the occurrence of intersex characteristics in male fish; this can be persistent and irreversible, with subsequent impacts on fertility and population stability (Orlando and Guillette 2007). These effects have been particularly noted in aquatic ecosystems, where eggs can develop in the testes of male fish exposed to EDCs. There is a large body of evidence that suggests that one particular API, ethinylestradiol (EE2) plays a significant role even at very low environmental concentrations. EE2 is the active ingredient in the human contraceptive pill, which is used by approximately 100 million people worldwide (Jobling and Owen 2012). As well as it use in birth control, EE2 is also used for the treatment of various gynaecological and endocrine disorders. Laboratory research has shown that environmentally relevant concentrations of EE2 alone can have dramatic impacts on wildlife (Lange et al. 2001; Nash et al. 2004), while in one study in Canada, involving the introduction of EE2 in a lake at a concentration of just 5 parts per trillion (which is only slightly higher than the concentrations expected in rivers and streams) led to the complete collapse of an entire population of fish (Kidd et al. 2007). Another class of human APIs of current concern is the antidepressants, which include compounds such as fluoxetine, escitalopram and paroxetine. Recent research has suggested that environmentally relevant concentrations of fluoxetine, linked to concentrations released in coastal and estuarine habitats in the United Kingdom (UK), cause a change in behaviour of the marine amphipod Echinogammarus marinus by altering levels of serotonin. Exposed amphipods showed an increased tendency to swim close to the water surface, which increases the likelihood of predation by fish or birds (Guler and Ford 2010). Bean et al. (2014) also demonstrated that environmentally relevant levels of fluoxetine could have significant behavioural and physiological effects on starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), which could be exposed to the drug when feeding at sewage treatment plants or fields treated with sewage sludge. Recent research has also indicated that environmentally relevant levels of antidepressants can affect the reproduction, feeding and predator-avoidance behaviours of fathead minnows (Weinberger and Klaper 2014). Brodin et al. (2014) demonstrated that low μg/L levels of the anxiolytic oxazepam in freshwater could lead to bioaccumulation in the predatory European perch (Perca fluviatilis), with significant impacts on feeding behaviour. Impacts on wildlife have also been noted for veterinary APIs. For example, Floate et al. (2005) provide a comprehensive review of studies on parasiticides applied to pasture animals. These show that some classes of APIs are excreted to pasture environments in concentrations that can be lethal to coprophagous (dung-eating) insects and to other species inhabiting the pasture soil environment, over periods ranging from a few days to several months (see also Lumaret et al. 2012). This poses a potential risk to other species through the food chain, including bats and birds. While evidence for the direct toxicity of environmental concentrations to vertebrate predators of pasture insects has not been determined, there is concern that reductions in farmland invertebrates may lead to locally significant reductions in prey availability, Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health 175
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Connecting Global Priorities: Biodi
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WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publicat
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Chapter authors Lead coordinating a
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Table of Contents Forewords _______
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11. Traditional medicine___________
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Foreword by the Director, Public He
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Biodiversity and Health “is a sta
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GLEN BOWES Executive Summary INTROD
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Multi-disciplinary research and app
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BIODIVERSITY, FOOD PRODUCTION AND N
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of wild foods increases during the
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most rapid increase in low- and mid
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human outbreaks, suggesting a senti
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purposes. These pose a threat both
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art, literature and dance. They for
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AIRMAN 1ST CLASS CHERYL SANZI (USAF
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through, inter alia, better underst
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Others include identifying and redu
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PART I Concepts, Themes & Direction
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and experts from the fields of biod
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Linkages and co-dependencies at the
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“species richness” is one of bi
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Box 1. A typology of biodiversity-h
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adequate responses targeting specif
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ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK / FLICKR eco
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processes and associated thresholds
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Land-use change is also the leading
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Much of the natural and migration g
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6. CONCLUSION: A THEMATIC APPROACH
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PART II Thematic Areas in Biodivers
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2. Water resources: an essential ec
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Box 1. The Catskills: an ecosystem
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• increased biomass of phytoplank
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or to increase the growth rate of a
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2002). Integrated water management
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valuable benefits to human communit
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In Cameroon, schistosomiasis has be
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have been relatively successful wit
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UNDP BANGLADESH / FLICKR 4. Biodive
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summer (e.g. to cool buildings), in
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Emissions occur primarily under con
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in these urban areas is also typica
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spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), black lo
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(S)-containing pollutants. Species
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CRAIG HANSEN 5. Agricultural biodiv
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Box 1. Risks to animal genetic reso
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With land conversion has come signi
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2001; Wilby et al. 2009; Frison et
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of spiders (important pest predator
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• Oncogenic effects: tumour-formi
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have been pesticides of many differ
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integrated pest management (IPM), i
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the world (PAR/FAO 2011). Despite p
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Declaration which particularly invo
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most likely to be negatively impact
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RAWPIXEL LTD 6. Biodiversity and Nu
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In view of these trends, monitoring
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Table 1: Carotenoid content of sele
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intakes of these nutrients and rela
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een shown to stimulate productivity
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4. Wild foods and human nutrition 3
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some parts of the world. For exampl
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depletion of some species (Nasi et
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and how these foods can be used to
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Results from the Philippine Nationa
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7. Nutrition, biodiversity and agri
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eeds sold at farmer’s markets aro
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& Haider 2015). In Indonesia, the C
Page 139 and 140: products and directing them to publ
Page 141 and 142: Substitutes (WHO 1981). Text from t
Page 143 and 144: malnutrition in all its forms and t
Page 145 and 146: RAWPIXEL LTD / ISTOCKPHOTO novel, i
Page 147 and 148: population increases, over five bil
Page 149 and 150: of low competence (“diluting”)
Page 151 and 152: fragmentation. A recent review inve
Page 153 and 154: een removed from these areas, the v
Page 155 and 156: contact and pathogen transmission o
Page 157 and 158: number of cases has dramatically in
Page 159 and 160: Genetic diversity within such culti
Page 161 and 162: and the evolution of a more suitabl
Page 163 and 164: assessments - including wildlife di
Page 165 and 166: monkey. If non-human primates are h
Page 167 and 168: contributing to diminished immunore
Page 169 and 170: helminth that could be administered
Page 171 and 172: components in house dust was associ
Page 173 and 174: 4..1 etriental irobiota in unhealth
Page 175 and 176: In low-income settings, exposure to
Page 177 and 178: KIBAE PARK / UNITED NATION PHOTO /
Page 179 and 180: a) Traditional versus microbiota-da
Page 181 and 182: development for use in the US. Most
Page 183 and 184: Case study: herus auatius and DNA r
Page 185 and 186: In the coming decades, a great mass
Page 187 and 188: Box 1. Overview of some of the majo
Page 189: attention only in recent years, as
Page 193 and 194: several potential knock-in impacts
Page 195 and 196: widespread use (Boxall et al. 2012)
Page 197 and 198: environments, and is usually passed
Page 199 and 200: in cats claw is so immense that, in
Page 201 and 202: among healers and act according to
Page 203 and 204: Box 4. Therapeutic and sacred lands
Page 205 and 206: (PROMETRA),⁵ which has been worki
Page 207 and 208: Box 5: Participatory approaches to
Page 209 and 210: The case of the RITAM initiative (i
Page 211 and 212: esources and equitable sharing of b
Page 213 and 214: 6.1 Innovations and incentives It i
Page 215 and 216: These cases highlight that promotin
Page 217 and 218: we interact with other life forms i
Page 219 and 220: health benefits of exposure to gree
Page 221 and 222: 3. Biodiversity, green space, exerc
Page 223 and 224: NCDs and their risk factors can be
Page 225 and 226: al. (2012) and Fuller et al. (2007)
Page 227 and 228: UNITED NATIONS PHOTO / FLICKR Recog
Page 229 and 230: While many community-specific linka
Page 231 and 232: Therapeutic and biocultural landsca
Page 233 and 234: Box 6. Ko Omapere te wai, Aotearoa
Page 235 and 236: The high biodiversity ecosystems wi
Page 237 and 238: PART III Cross-Cutting Issues, Tool
Page 239 and 240: The chapters in this volume have dr
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al. 2014), though advances in techn
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2. Climate change challenges at the
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adaptation and mitigation strategie
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Box 2 discusses the impact of heat
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.5.1 ountain eosstes and liate hang
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poor and vulnerable communities, in
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Women (MDD-W), which has been sugge
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displacement, injury, or loss of so
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enhance preparedness towards the ad
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Case study: The use of vegetation i
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While community members and visitor
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from local forests, while wild food
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Case study: Pressure on water resou
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STEPHAN BACHENHEIMER / WORLD BANK P
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unwanted pregnancies, and the imple
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Business-as-usual scenarios were co
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industrial food production systems
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Table 1 : Some key biodiversity-hea
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(f) Addressing the unintended negat
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intersectoral collaboration on biod
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Ecosystem Assessment, is a framewor
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Table 2: Examples of cross-cutting
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7. Shaping behaviour and engaging c
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execution techniques; this is the a
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“reduce biodiversity loss, achiev
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antagonistic effects of complementa
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Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: the e
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United Nations Task Team on Social
Page 297 and 298:
Drace, K.; Kiefer, A. M.; Veiga, M.
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Oliver, D.M., Heathwaite, L., Hayga
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WWF. (2012). Living Planet Report 2
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Nowak D.J., Hirabayashi S., et al.
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CBD (2014) Emerging key messages fo
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Halwart, M. (2013) Valuing aquatic
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Micronutrient Initiative (2009) Inv
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Smith, P. and M. Bustamante (2013)
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Barnes, K.K., Collins, T.A., Dion,
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Elyse Messer, A. (2015) World crop
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Hooper, D. U. , F. S. Chapin III, J
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McDermott, J., Johnson, N., Kadiyal
Page 321 and 322:
Schulp, C.J.E., Thuiller, W. and Ve
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WHO (2012a). Obesity and Overweight
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Dornelas, M., Gotelli, N. J., McGil
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Mack, R., Simberloff D., Lonsdale W
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Suzán, G., Marcé, E., Giermakowsk
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Ege MJ, Mayer M, Normand AC, Genune
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O’Byrne KJ, Dalgleish AG, Brownin
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Zeeuwen PL, Kleerebezem M, Timmerma
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Floate KD, Wardhaugh KG, Boxall ABA
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Bertrand Graz, Healing and preventi
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Unnikrishnan, P.M., Prakash, B.N. (
Page 343 and 344:
Ellett, L., Freeman, D., Garety, P.
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Mitchell, R., Popham, F. (2008) Eff
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Williams, D. R., & Huffman, M. G. (
Page 349 and 350:
Eriksson, M., Jianchu, X., Shrestha
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Parmesan, C., & Martens, P. (2009).
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Das, S. and Crépin, A-S. 2013. Man
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Sudmeier-Rieux, K. and Ash, N. (200
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Robbins, P. (2011). Political ecolo
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Golden S. D., Earp J. A. (2012). So
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Secretariat of the Convention on Bi
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