Connecting Global Priorities Biodiversity and Human Health

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air pollution, soil compaction) and can induce changes in vegetation structure (Nowak 2010). Much is generally known about plant distribution globally, but less is known about factors that affect the distribution of plant diversity and human influences on plant biodiversity (Kreft and Jetz 2007). Variations in urban tree cover across regions and within cities give an indication of the types of factors that can affect urban tree structure and consequently biodiversity, with resulting impacts on human health. One of the dominant factors affecting tree cover in cities is the natural characteristics of the surrounding region. For example, in forested areas of the US, urban tree cover averages 34%. Cities within grassland areas average 18% tree cover, while cities in desert regions average only 9% tree cover (Nowak et al. 2001). Cities in areas conducive to tree growth naturally tend to have more tree cover, as nonmanaged spaces tend to naturally regenerate with trees. In forested areas, tree cover is often specifically excluded by design or management activities (e.g. impervious surfaces, mowing). In the US, while the per cent tree cover nationally in urban (35.0%) and rural areas (34.1%) are comparable, urbanization tends to decrease overall tree cover in naturally forested areas, but increase tree cover in grassland and desert regions (Nowak and Greenfield 2012). In urban areas, land use, population density, management intensity, human preferences and socioeconomic factors can affect the amount of tree cover and plant diversity (Nowak et al. 1996; Hope et al. 2003; Kunzig et al. 2005). These factors are often interrelated and create a mosaic of tree cover and species across the city landscape. Land use is a dominant factor affecting tree cover (Table 1). However, land use can also affect species composition, as non-managed lands (e.g. vacant) tend to be dominated by natural regeneration of native and exotic species. Within areas of managed land use, the species composition tends to be dictated by a combination of human preferences for certain species (tree planting) and how much land is allowed to naturally regenerate (Nowak 2010). Tree diversity, represented by the common biodiversity metrics of species richness (number of species) and the Shannon–Wiener diversity index (Barbour et al. 1980), varies among and within cities and through time. Based on field sampling of various cities in North America (Nowak et al. 2008; Nowak 2010), species richness varied from 37 species in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, to 109 species in Oakville, Ontario, Canada (Figure 1). Species diversity varied from 1.6 in Calgary to 3.8 in Washington, DC (Figure 2). The species richness in all cities is greater than the average species richness in eastern US forests by county (26.3) (Iverson and Prasad 2001). Species diversity potential natural vegetation types (forest, grassland, desert) by land use (from Nowak et al. 1996) Forest Grassland Desert Land use Mean SE Mean SE Mean SE Park 47.6 5.9 27.4 2.1 11.3 3.5 Vacant/wildland 44.5 7.4 11.0 2.5 0.8 1.9 Residential 31.4 2.4 18.7 1.5 17.2 3.5 Institutional 19.9 1.9 9.1 1.2 6.7 2.0 Other 7.7 1.2 7.1 1.9 3.0 1.3 Commercial/industrial 7.2 1.0 4.8 0.6 7.6 1.8 Includes agriculture, orchards, transportation (e.g., freeways, airports, shipyards), and miscellaneous. 68 Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health
in these urban areas is also typically greater than found in eastern US forests (Barbour et al. 1980). Tree species diversity and richness is enhanced in urban areas compared with surrounding landscapes and/or typical forest stands, as native species richness is supplemented with species introduced by urban inhabitants or processes. People often plant trees in urban areas to improve aesthetics and/or the physical or social environment. Some non-native species can be introduced via transportation corridors or escape from cultivation (e.g. Muehlenbach 1969; Haigh 1980). Species richness and values for tree populations in various cities. Numbers in parentheses are sample size based on 0.04 hectare plots. (A) Dark line indicates average species richness in eastern US forests by county (26.3). Atlanta, Georgia (205) Baltimore, Maryland (200) Boston, Massachusetts (217) Calgary, Alberta (350) Freehold, New Jersey (144) Jersey City, New Jersey (220) Minneapolis, Minnesota (110) Moorestown, New Jersey (206) Morgantown, West Virginia (136) New York City, New York (206) Oakville, Ontario (372) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (210) San Francisco, California (194) Syracuse, New York (198) Tampa, Florida (201) Washington DC (201) Wilmington, Delaware (208) Woodbridge, New Jersey (215) Source: Nowak 2010 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 Number of Tree Species Shannon–Wiener Diversity Index values. Shaded area indicates typical range of diversity values for forests in the eastern US (1.7–3.1). Atlanta, Georgia (205) Baltimore, Maryland (200) Boston, Massachusetts (217) Calgary, Alberta (350) Freehold, New Jersey (144) Jersey City, New Jersey (220) Minneapolis, Minnesota (110) Moorestown, New Jersey (206) Morgantown, West Virginia (136) New York City, New York (206) Oakville, Ontario (372) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (210) San Francisco, California (194) Syracuse, New York (198) Tampa, Florida (201) Washington DC (201) Wilmington, Delaware (208) Woodbridge, New Jersey (215) Source: Nowak 2010 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 Index Value Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health 69
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Connecting Global Priorities: Biodi
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WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publicat
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Chapter authors Lead coordinating a
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Table of Contents Forewords _______
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11. Traditional medicine___________
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Foreword by the Director, Public He
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Biodiversity and Health “is a sta
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GLEN BOWES Executive Summary INTROD
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Multi-disciplinary research and app
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BIODIVERSITY, FOOD PRODUCTION AND N
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of wild foods increases during the
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most rapid increase in low- and mid
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human outbreaks, suggesting a senti
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purposes. These pose a threat both
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art, literature and dance. They for
Page 33 and 34: AIRMAN 1ST CLASS CHERYL SANZI (USAF
Page 35 and 36: through, inter alia, better underst
Page 37 and 38: Others include identifying and redu
Page 39 and 40: PART I Concepts, Themes & Direction
Page 41 and 42: and experts from the fields of biod
Page 43 and 44: Linkages and co-dependencies at the
Page 45 and 46: “species richness” is one of bi
Page 47 and 48: Box 1. A typology of biodiversity-h
Page 49 and 50: adequate responses targeting specif
Page 51 and 52: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK / FLICKR eco
Page 53 and 54: processes and associated thresholds
Page 55 and 56: Land-use change is also the leading
Page 57 and 58: Much of the natural and migration g
Page 59 and 60: 6. CONCLUSION: A THEMATIC APPROACH
Page 61 and 62: PART II Thematic Areas in Biodivers
Page 63 and 64: 2. Water resources: an essential ec
Page 65 and 66: Box 1. The Catskills: an ecosystem
Page 67 and 68: • increased biomass of phytoplank
Page 69 and 70: or to increase the growth rate of a
Page 71 and 72: 2002). Integrated water management
Page 73 and 74: valuable benefits to human communit
Page 75 and 76: In Cameroon, schistosomiasis has be
Page 77 and 78: have been relatively successful wit
Page 79 and 80: UNDP BANGLADESH / FLICKR 4. Biodive
Page 81 and 82: summer (e.g. to cool buildings), in
Page 83: Emissions occur primarily under con
Page 87 and 88: spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), black lo
Page 89 and 90: (S)-containing pollutants. Species
Page 91 and 92: CRAIG HANSEN 5. Agricultural biodiv
Page 93 and 94: Box 1. Risks to animal genetic reso
Page 95 and 96: With land conversion has come signi
Page 97 and 98: 2001; Wilby et al. 2009; Frison et
Page 99 and 100: of spiders (important pest predator
Page 101 and 102: • Oncogenic effects: tumour-formi
Page 103 and 104: have been pesticides of many differ
Page 105 and 106: integrated pest management (IPM), i
Page 107 and 108: the world (PAR/FAO 2011). Despite p
Page 109 and 110: Declaration which particularly invo
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Page 113 and 114: RAWPIXEL LTD 6. Biodiversity and Nu
Page 115 and 116: In view of these trends, monitoring
Page 117 and 118: Table 1: Carotenoid content of sele
Page 119 and 120: intakes of these nutrients and rela
Page 121 and 122: een shown to stimulate productivity
Page 123 and 124: 4. Wild foods and human nutrition 3
Page 125 and 126: some parts of the world. For exampl
Page 127 and 128: depletion of some species (Nasi et
Page 129 and 130: and how these foods can be used to
Page 131 and 132: Results from the Philippine Nationa
Page 133 and 134: 7. Nutrition, biodiversity and agri
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eeds sold at farmer’s markets aro
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& Haider 2015). In Indonesia, the C
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products and directing them to publ
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Substitutes (WHO 1981). Text from t
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malnutrition in all its forms and t
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RAWPIXEL LTD / ISTOCKPHOTO novel, i
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population increases, over five bil
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of low competence (“diluting”)
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fragmentation. A recent review inve
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een removed from these areas, the v
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contact and pathogen transmission o
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number of cases has dramatically in
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Genetic diversity within such culti
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and the evolution of a more suitabl
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assessments - including wildlife di
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monkey. If non-human primates are h
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contributing to diminished immunore
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helminth that could be administered
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components in house dust was associ
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4..1 etriental irobiota in unhealth
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In low-income settings, exposure to
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KIBAE PARK / UNITED NATION PHOTO /
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a) Traditional versus microbiota-da
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development for use in the US. Most
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Case study: herus auatius and DNA r
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In the coming decades, a great mass
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Box 1. Overview of some of the majo
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attention only in recent years, as
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APIs with similar modes of action)
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several potential knock-in impacts
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widespread use (Boxall et al. 2012)
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environments, and is usually passed
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in cats claw is so immense that, in
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among healers and act according to
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Box 4. Therapeutic and sacred lands
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(PROMETRA),⁵ which has been worki
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Box 5: Participatory approaches to
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The case of the RITAM initiative (i
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esources and equitable sharing of b
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6.1 Innovations and incentives It i
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These cases highlight that promotin
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we interact with other life forms i
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health benefits of exposure to gree
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3. Biodiversity, green space, exerc
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NCDs and their risk factors can be
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al. (2012) and Fuller et al. (2007)
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UNITED NATIONS PHOTO / FLICKR Recog
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While many community-specific linka
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Therapeutic and biocultural landsca
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Box 6. Ko Omapere te wai, Aotearoa
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The high biodiversity ecosystems wi
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PART III Cross-Cutting Issues, Tool
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The chapters in this volume have dr
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al. 2014), though advances in techn
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2. Climate change challenges at the
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adaptation and mitigation strategie
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Box 2 discusses the impact of heat
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.5.1 ountain eosstes and liate hang
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poor and vulnerable communities, in
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Women (MDD-W), which has been sugge
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displacement, injury, or loss of so
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enhance preparedness towards the ad
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Case study: The use of vegetation i
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While community members and visitor
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from local forests, while wild food
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Case study: Pressure on water resou
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STEPHAN BACHENHEIMER / WORLD BANK P
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unwanted pregnancies, and the imple
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Business-as-usual scenarios were co
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industrial food production systems
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Table 1 : Some key biodiversity-hea
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(f) Addressing the unintended negat
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intersectoral collaboration on biod
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Ecosystem Assessment, is a framewor
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Table 2: Examples of cross-cutting
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7. Shaping behaviour and engaging c
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execution techniques; this is the a
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“reduce biodiversity loss, achiev
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antagonistic effects of complementa
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Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: the e
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United Nations Task Team on Social
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Drace, K.; Kiefer, A. M.; Veiga, M.
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Oliver, D.M., Heathwaite, L., Hayga
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WWF. (2012). Living Planet Report 2
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Nowak D.J., Hirabayashi S., et al.
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CBD (2014) Emerging key messages fo
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Halwart, M. (2013) Valuing aquatic
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Micronutrient Initiative (2009) Inv
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Smith, P. and M. Bustamante (2013)
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Barnes, K.K., Collins, T.A., Dion,
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Elyse Messer, A. (2015) World crop
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Hooper, D. U. , F. S. Chapin III, J
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McDermott, J., Johnson, N., Kadiyal
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Schulp, C.J.E., Thuiller, W. and Ve
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WHO (2012a). Obesity and Overweight
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Dornelas, M., Gotelli, N. J., McGil
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Mack, R., Simberloff D., Lonsdale W
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Suzán, G., Marcé, E., Giermakowsk
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Ege MJ, Mayer M, Normand AC, Genune
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O’Byrne KJ, Dalgleish AG, Brownin
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Zeeuwen PL, Kleerebezem M, Timmerma
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Floate KD, Wardhaugh KG, Boxall ABA
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Bertrand Graz, Healing and preventi
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Unnikrishnan, P.M., Prakash, B.N. (
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Ellett, L., Freeman, D., Garety, P.
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Mitchell, R., Popham, F. (2008) Eff
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Williams, D. R., & Huffman, M. G. (
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Eriksson, M., Jianchu, X., Shrestha
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Parmesan, C., & Martens, P. (2009).
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Das, S. and Crépin, A-S. 2013. Man
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Sudmeier-Rieux, K. and Ash, N. (200
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Robbins, P. (2011). Political ecolo
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Golden S. D., Earp J. A. (2012). So
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Secretariat of the Convention on Bi
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