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20 Biofabrication ciplines to describe different processes and phenomena. There have been a number of attempts to formulate a broad definition of Biofabrication that would embrace its use within these disparate fields. Luo, for example, stated that ‚Regardless of the slight emphasis of the definitions, there are several unique features of Biofabrication: first, the building blocks are cells or biologics; second, the fabrication processes are bio-inspired or bio-friendly; and finally, the products are biological systems, models or devices with transformative properties‘. This definition does not, however, include biological processes such as biomineralisation, because these are not bio-inspired but naturally occurring processes. Hence, since Biofabrication inherently fabricates a product, it could broadly be described as ‚a process that results in a defined product with biological function‘. This would encompass all the different and novel aspects of Biofabrication, however it would also include several other fields of research and natural processes. { Biofabrication technologies for TE and RM applications } Here we focus on the technology of Biofabrication that uses cells and materials as building blocks, and which is mainly used for TE and RM applications. Our objective is to summarize, specify and classify the rapidly growing and diverging Biofabrication research activities in the field. The use of printing technologies for 3D positioning of cells was first demonstrated in 1988 by Klebe under the term cytoscribing. Despite the truly pioneering character of this work and possibly because there was a long interval before researchers returned to the concept, this term was not picked up by the subsequent literature. The term ‚organ printing‘, on the other hand, first appeared in 2003 and was defined as ‚a rapid prototyping computer-aided 3D printing technology, based on using layer-by-layer deposition of cells and/or cell aggregates into a 3D gel with sequential maturation of the printed construct into perfused and vascularized living tissue or organs. ‚Organ printing is still frequently used, particularly in the popular literature, however its current usage is often broader than this quite narrow original definition. The historical evolution of the term Biofabrication, when used in the field of TE and RM, has occurred in parallel with the evolution of the term Bioprinting and possibly this has led to a confusion and possible conflation of the two terms, especially in the popular and journalistic media. Bioprinting was, to the best of our knowledge, first used as a term in the title of the ‚Workshop on Bioprinting, Biopatterning and Bioassembly‘ held at the University of Manchester, UK, in 2004. In a report on this meeting Mironov, Reis and Derby stated: ‚For the purpose of the meeting, Bioprinting was defined as: The use of material transfer processes for patterning and assembling biologically relevant materials—molecules, cells, tissues, and biodegradable biomaterials—with a prescribed organization to accomplish one or more biological functions. The term Bioprinting was subsequently used to specifically describe a process where a mechanical fabrication tool is used to organize or pattern biological entities in two- or three-dimensions to build an
Biofabrication 21 artificial construct. In 2010 Guillemot et al defined Bioprinting as ‚the use of computer-aided transfer processes for patterning and assembling living and non-living materials with a prescribed 2D or 3D organization in order to produce bio-engineered structures serving in regenerative medicine, pharmacokinetic and basic cell biology studies. It is thus clearly related to the parallel development of Additive Manufacturing that was then emerging as an engineering fabrication tool. Consequently, Biofabrication was first defined by Mironov et al in the inaugural issue of the journal Biofabrication in 2009 as ‚the production of complex living and non-living biological products from raw materials such as living cells, molecules, extracellular matrices, and biomaterials. It is evident that the terms Bioprinting and Biofabrication are closely related, and since their respective existing definitions overlap, it is extremely difficult to effectively differentiate them. As a consequence, they are often used inconsistently or interchangeably, which underscores the need for clarification. As recently pointed out by Hutmacher and colleagues, it would be beneficial for a new ASTM/ISO norm to be developed, or for a new sub-norm to be defined under ASTM F2792 in order to unambiguously define the terms Biofabrication and Bioprinting. Beyond this more technical approach, and as already suggested by Boland and Mironov, we believe that determining the positioning of Biofabrication as a research field and its relationship with TE and RM will help in clarifying these definitions. { Biofabrication and its relation to TE and RM } TE was defined in 1993 as ‚an interdisciplinary field that applies the principles of engineering and life sciences towards the development of biological substitutes that restore, maintain, or improve biological tissue function or a whole organ‘. The field of TE has grown and expanded since 1993, and its definition has been extended accordingly. In 2007, for example, 12 federal agencies in the US proposed a combined definition of Tissue Science and TE as: ‚The use of physical, chemical, biological, and engineering processes to control and direct the aggregate behavior of cells. More importantly, the field of RM has been defined as ‚the application of tissue science, tissue engineering, and related biological and engineering principles that restore the structure and function of damaged tissues and organs. This includes not only in vivo but also in vitro generation of functional tissue analogues for various purposes such as drug testing, disease models, including cell/tissue/organ-on-a-chip approaches. Within TE and RM, Biofabrication provides a core and vital technology for these emerging applications that is not restricted simply to Additive Manufacturing approaches (figure 1).Kinderspielplatz eröffnen. Experten sprechen von Bioremediation. Sogar Radioaktivität können Pilze verwerten, wie Beobachtungen in Tschernobyl gezeigt haben. With the classical TE approach, cells are seeded onto a prefabricated scaffold, typically in conjunction with the delivery of bioactive factors that ensure maintenance of cellular
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