A.D. 381 heretics, pagans, and the dawn of the monotheistic state ( PDFDrive )

result that a complex of interlocking rituals and sacred sites could sustain local
cultures without undermining Roman supremacy. Over one or two generations of
Roman rule, provincial elites, ancient or newly created, would come to recognise
that it was in their interests to cooperate in the long-term survival of the empire.
As a result, the imperial administration was astonishingly light. The emperor
ruled from Rome, although he could, of course, be called away on a campaign or
to make a tour of the provinces. Some emperors actually preferred life on the
move. Hadrian, for instance, was more interested in the Greek world than the
Roman and was outside Rome for more than half his reign. Each province had
its own governor, with a small staff, but much of the day-to-day administration
rested with the local elites. There was, of course, a taxation system in place, a
poll tax and property tax, the proceeds of which were sent to Rome to cover the
costs of administration. It was always a tricky moment when Roman officials
entered a new province to make the assessments, but once established, the
system seems to have worked tolerably well. Its weaknesses were that the richer
classes tended to pass demands down to the poorer, and that when there were
unexpected pressures on the empire, as from a sudden attack, it was difficult to
tap fresh resources quickly.
The borders of the empire were manned by so-called auxiliary troops who
were drawn from the subject peoples of the empire and who often fought in their
own units and with their own equipment. They were certainly well trained
enough to deal with minor incursions, and are even recorded as winning battles
in some campaigns, but when something more threatening was at hand, the
legions, the crack infantry made up of Roman citizens, were called in. In times
of peace the legions were strategically stationed along the more vulnerable
borders - the Rhine, the Danube and the Persian - and could move into action
when and where they were needed.
As has already been mentioned, it was the emperor Hadrian who had been
shrewd enough to recognise in the early second century that continuous
expansion meant there would be ever longer borders to defend and so was selfdefeating.
It was better to fortify the existing borders and focus on the existing
prosperity of the empire. But any respite offered by this new policy was shortlived.
Again, as has already been noted, there was major unrest on the northern
frontiers as German tribes began raiding over the border from the 160s onwards.
The causes of the unrest were varied. The empire was wealthy, its cities
accessible to invaders along good roads, and the frontiers were too long to
defend easily. Population pressures were causing realignments among the