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<strong>PCR</strong> Technology 77<br />

automation event into <strong>PCR</strong> technology. The real-time mode <strong>of</strong> amplification<br />

has basically abolished the need to open <strong>PCR</strong> tubes following amplification,<br />

which is the main source <strong>of</strong> carryover.<br />

In addition, application <strong>of</strong> solution hybridization probes in combination with<br />

fluorescence dyes can increase diagnostic specificity and sensitivity <strong>of</strong> <strong>PCR</strong><br />

testing, making the use <strong>of</strong> nested <strong>PCR</strong> or double <strong>PCR</strong> unnecessary.<br />

Finally, automation has increased the throughput capacity <strong>of</strong> <strong>PCR</strong> laboratories<br />

substantially, providing a real opportunity for cost-effective testing <strong>of</strong><br />

large number <strong>of</strong> samples, with minimum requirements for skilled labor and<br />

large dedicated work spaces. The major automation effort <strong>of</strong> the future will<br />

be directed at pre-<strong>PCR</strong> sample treatment.<br />

References<br />

1. D’Aoust, J.-Y. (1994) Salmonella and the international food trade. Int. J. Food<br />

Microbiol. 24, 11–31.<br />

2. Hill, W. E., and Keasler, S. P. (1991) Identification <strong>of</strong> food borne pathogens by<br />

nucleic acid hybridization. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 12, 67–76.<br />

3. Saiki, R. K., Scharf, S. J, Faloona, F. A., et al. (1985) Enzymatic amplification<br />

<strong>of</strong> -globin genomic sequences and restriction site analysis for diagnosis <strong>of</strong><br />

sickle cell anemia. Science 230, 1350–1354.<br />

4. Mullis, K.B. and Faloona, F.A. (1987) Specific synthesis <strong>of</strong> DNA in vitro via a<br />

polymerase-catalyzed chain reaction. Methods Enzymol. 155, 335–351.<br />

5. Saiki, R. K., Gelfand, D. H., St<strong>of</strong>fel, S., et al. (1988) Primer-directed enzymatic<br />

amplification <strong>of</strong> DNA with a thermostable DNA polymerase. Science<br />

239, 487–491.<br />

6. Swaminathan, B., and Feng, P. (1994) Rapid detection <strong>of</strong> food-borne pathogenic<br />

bacteria. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 48, 401–426.<br />

7. Scheu, P. M., Bergh<strong>of</strong>, K., and Stahl, U. (1998). <strong>Detection</strong> <strong>of</strong> pathogenic and<br />

spoilage micro-organisms in food with the polymerase chain reaction. Food<br />

Microbiol. 15, 13–31.<br />

8. Easter, M. C. (1985) Rapid and automated detection <strong>of</strong> Salmonella by electrical<br />

measurements. J. Hyg. Camb. 94, 245–262.<br />

9. Ibrahim, G. F., and Fleet, G.,H. (1985) <strong>Detection</strong> <strong>of</strong> salmonellae using accelerated<br />

methods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2, 259–272.<br />

10. Beumer, R. R., Brinkman, E., and Rombouts F. M. (1991) Enzyme-linked<br />

immunoassays for the detection <strong>of</strong> Salmonella spp.: a comparison with other<br />

methods. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 12, 363–374.<br />

11. Ellison, A., Perry, S.F. and Stewart, G.S.A.B. (1991) Bioluminescence as a realtime<br />

monitor <strong>of</strong> injury and recovery in Salmonella typhimurium. Int. J. Food<br />

Microbiol. 12, 323–332.<br />

12. Blackburn, C. de W. (1993) Rapid and alternative methods for the detection <strong>of</strong><br />

salmonellas. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 75, 199–214.

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