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defensive armament consisted in a conical helmet, a coat of mail
(the byrnie or lorica) and a large shield; offensive arms included
spear, sword and perhaps a mace or club; indispensable for
offensive action was the heavy war-horse, or destrier. These
men were heavy cavalry because they were fully armed and, in
particular, because they had expensive mail coat. 31
When we think about the importance of these mounted men, we have to take
into consideration both their social and military features. In a social sense, in the
course of time, the meaning of milites changed. Initially, milites could be any kind
of soldier, then all soldiers with horses were regarded as milites; in later periods, the
word miles gained an honorific sense. By the eleventh century to some extent, and
especially by the thirteenth century, knights had become a new class that was close
to being part of the aristocracy. In the military sense, on the other hand, their impact
did not change between the tenth and the thirteenth centuries 32 :
It is important to be clear, however, that these big changes, which
resulted in a new self-description for the aristocracy and, in some
part, a new culture and new ideas, had little effect on the
technology of cavalry warfare. 33
Another military development that spread from northern France was
crossbows. There were basically three kinds of bow in medieval Europe; the
shortbow, the longbow and the crossbow. It was in the tenth century that crossbows
were recorded in France for the first time; in other parts of Europe, and in the east
they were not then known. When we compare it with the other bows, the crossbow
was slow but highly effective. By the first half of the thirteenth century the crossbow
was used in many parts of Europe, including Germany and England. 34
The development of castles had political as well as military effects in
Europe. The most important characteristic of the simplest motte, or motte and
31 Bartlett, Making of Europe, p. 61.
32 Strickland, War and Chivalry, p. 19.
33 Bartlett, Making of Europe, p. 62.
34 Ibid., p. 63.
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