Flute acoustics: measurement, modelling and design - School of ...

CHAPTER 2. THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW 11
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 2.1: An early bone flute (a), a baroque flute (b), a classical flute (c) and a modern flute
(d).
higher than an ordinary flute.
The modern flute was developed in the mid-19th century with the largest developments
made by Theobald Boehm (Boehm 1871). Boehm redesigned the flute bore, making it mostly
cylindrical with a diameter of 19 mm, and tapering the bore to around 17 mm at the cork.
Boehm also aimed to place the holes at their ‘acoustically correct’ positions, and developed
a system of keys and clutches that allows the player to play most of the notes in the equal tempered
chromatic scale with no cross fingerings. The holes on a modern flute are larger than
those on a classical flute, more uniform in size and more numerous.
Most modern flutes are made of metal although many early flutes were made to Boehm’s
design with a wooden bore and silver keys (Fletcher & Rossing 1998). Flutes from the 19th
century exist that use Boehm’s key system with a conical bore. Modern orchestral flutes differ
very little from Boehm’s design.
The history of the flute is discussed by Rockstro (1890), Baines (1967) and Bate (1975). Wolfe
et al. (2001a) give an overview of the acoustics of flutes and Wolfe & Smith (2003) compare
the use of cross fingerings in baroque, classical and modern flutes. Fabre & Hirschberg (2000)
review physical models of the flute excitation mechanism. Terry McGee’s web site provides extensive information about flute making and the history
of classical flutes.
2.1.2 Materials for flute making
Many different materials have been used to make flutes, including wood, ivory, glass, ebonite
and metal (Rockstro 1890). Of the various types of wood available, flute makers favour finegrained,
dense timbers, such as cocuswood, African blackwood or European boxwood. Many
timber species traditionally used to make flutes are rare or endangered, and modern makers are
increasingly looking to different species for sustainable production. Terry McGee, for example,