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• Ethnographic studies: This technique is particularly important in social sciences, though organizational sciences have increasingly used it. It involves a long period of systematic observation by a researcher. During the phase of observation, the observer almost merges with the culture s/ he is studying. Extended time required for such studies, however, is a drawback. • Action research - This method is being increasingly employed in social development sector. However, its use in organizations is limited. In an important contribution, Trice and Beyer (1984) proposed that organizational culture can be studied through rites and ceremonies followed in an organization. Metaphors can be useful in studying culture (Morgan, 1997). Quantitative Techniques Organizational culture is an all-encompassing concept that needs to be broken into manageable proportions for study (Meek, 1988). The quantitative measurement of culture focuses more on what a culture has (Smircich, 1983). A general agreement seems to be that quantitative approaches are more capable of measuring the general, shallow level of culture, and qualitative studies are more capable of penetrating the deeper levels of value system, assumptions, etc (Ashkanasy, Broadfoot, and Falkus, 2000). Quantitative methods try to capture the manifestation of culture only, which may occur as a behavior (a manifest action) or a thought or feeling. These methods do not have the capacity to penetrate and directly touch the deeper layers of culture. Several instruments have been developed, but unfortunately they vary widely in format, items, etc. These instruments can be clubbed in two broad categories (Ashkanasy et al., 2000): • Typing scales - These classify organizations into particular taxonomies. • Profile scales - These describe the culture of an organization. Ashkanasy et al. (2000) reviewed 18 scales of organizational culture. Some of these scales measure norms while some other measure values. Of these, complete reliability and validity assessment was reported for only two scales and partial reporting was available for four other scales. It should be noted here that reliability and validity assessments help determine the scientific soundness of an instrument, and hence one should avoid using scales with unknown reliability and validity. An important issue to consider here is the scientific equivalence of scales when translating scales for usages in local languages. One way of ensuring this is back-to-back translation (Brislin, 1986). This is an accepted procedure for translating scales in some other language. In this procedure, a bilingual translator translates the original scale into a local language. Then a second bilingual translator translates the local language version back into the original language of the scale (mostly English). A third bilingual compares the original and back-translated version and the discrepancies are sorted out. Concluding Remarks It is important to realize the importance of organizational culture in the efforts aiming at organizational change. Though it would be erroneous to assume that even an insider would have complete grasp over organizational culture (let alone an outside consultant), it is useful to adopt scientifically discussed and tested techniques of interpreting organizational culture. This paper offers a brief review of such techniques which can be useful for practitioners dealing with issues of organizational culture and change. 72 November 2007 NHRD Journal
References Ashkanasy, N. M., Broadfoot, L. E. and Falkus, S. 2000. Questionnaire measures of organizational culture. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. P. M. Wilderom and M. F. Peterson (Eds.). Organizational Culture and Climate. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks. Blalock, H. M. and Blalock, A. B. 1968. Methodology in Social Research. McGraw Hill, New York. Brislin, R. W. 1986. The wording and translation of research instruments. In W. J. Lonner and J. W. Berry (Eds.). Field Methods in Cross Cultural Research. Sage, CA. Cooke, R., & Rousseau, D. 1988. Behavioral norms and expectations: A quantitative approach to the assessment of organizational culture. Group und Organizational Studies, 13: 245-273. Daft, R. L. 2008. Understanding the Theory and Design of Organizations. Cengage Learning, New Delhi. Detert, J. R., Shroeder, R. G. & Mauriel, J. J. 2000. A framework for linking culture and improvement initiatives in organizations. Academy of Management Review, Vol. 25. p. 850-863. Eisenhardt, K. M. 1989. Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Research. 14, p. 532-550. Hofstede, G., Neuijen, B., Ohavy, D. D. & Sanders, G. 1990. Measuring organizational cultures: A qualitative and quantitative study across twenty cases. Administrative Science Quarterly. 35, p. 286-316. Martin, J. 1992. Cultures in Organization: Three Perspectives. Oxford University Press, NY. Meek, V. L. 1988. Organizational Culture: Origins and Weaknesses. Organization Studies. 9, 453-473. Morgan, G. 1997. Images of Organization. Sage, Thousand Oaks. O’Reilly. C. A., III, & Chatman, J. A. 1996. Culture as social control: Corporations, cults, and commitment. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in Organizational Behavior, vol. 18: 157-200. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Parikh, I. J. and Garg, P. K. 1992. Theory of socio-technical systems. In I. J. Parikh and P. K. Garg (Eds.) Organization Theories, Issues and Applications. Indian Society for Individual and Social Development, Ahmedabad. Pettigrew, A. M. 1979. On studying organizational cultures. Administrative Science Quarterly. 24, p. 570-581. Schein, E. H. 1985. Organizational culture. In R. Kilmann, M. Saxton and R. Serpa (Eds.) Gaining Control of the Corporate Culture. Jossey Bass, San Francisco. Schein, E. H. 2003. Five traps for consulting psychologists or, how I learned to take culture seriously. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 55, 75-83. Smircich, L. 1983. Concept of culture and organizational analysis. Administrative Science Quarterly. 28, p. 339-358. Trice, H. M. and Beyer, J., M. 1984. Studying Organizational Cultures Through Rites and Ceremonials. Academy of Management Review. 9, 653 – 669. Wadia, M. S. 1965. The concept of culture. Journal of Retailing. 41, 1, p. 21-30. Yin, R. K. 1994. Case Study Research – Design and Methods. Sage Publications, CA. 1 Reliability estimates communicate to what extent the items of a scale measure a common attribute. Validity assessments tell if the attribute getting measured is the one that we want to measure. November 2007 NHRD Journal 73
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NHRD Journal Organizational Change
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S.no Title of the Article Author Pa
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ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE INDIRA J PARI
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give subtle shape to the organizati
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to be tempered by a sense of humor,
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Although the result did not spell o
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the Project Sponsor to engage the C
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• Consultative - The target popul
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Now they are confronted with change
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A living system can never be direct
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Page 27 and 28: magnitude of the programme, you can
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Page 37 and 38: BRINGING CHANGE TO THE CHANGE AGENT
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Page 47 and 48: References Chris Argyris, Initiatin
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Page 51 and 52: esponse to changes in the external
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Page 69 and 70: However the good news is that the a
Page 71: Organizational Culture and Sub-Cult
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Page 111 and 112: Conclusion There is a broad agreeme
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i. Technology • Plant location
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consolidates in a short period of f
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PBIT (Rs in crores.) The Company ha
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concepts in an organizational conte
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APPEAL TO CONTRIBUTORS The National
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