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plantations is expected to rise substantially from 2019 when harvesting begins (Figure 4). In addition, the oil quality of heartwood derived from future plantations is likely to improve as trees with elevated levels of santalol have been identified (Hettiarachchi and Coakley 2009) and improvement programs using material derived from these trees are currently being conducted in Western Australia. Pacific sandalwoods (Santalum spp.) Pacific sandalwood species of commercial value include S. austrocaledonicum (Vanuatu and New Caledonia), S. macgregorii (listed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as endangered; Papua New Guinea), S. insulare (French Polynesia and Cook Islands) and S. yasi (Fiji and Tonga) in the South Pacific; and S. ellipticum, S. freycinetianum, S. haleakalae and S. paniculatum from Hawaii in the northern Pacific. Species such as S. yasi and some populations of S. austrocaledonicum produce high-quality sandalwood products, reputedly similar in quality to S. album from India and Indonesia (Thomson 2008). Many sandalwood species in the Pacific region are approaching commercial exhaustion in their native habitats. However, on a more positive note, both small and larger scale sandalwood plantations are being established in parts of the Pacific region, which will increasingly substitute the dwindling supplies from native forests (Gillieson et al. 2008; Thomson 2008). In French Polynesia, the area of sandalwood plantings established in recent years approaches several hectares (Butaud and Defranoux 2007). African sandalwood (Osyris lanceolata) Osyris lanceolata, a related species in the same family, is a multistemmed African tree that produces a heartwood oil with similar fragrant properties to Santalum species. African sandalwood is harvested from natural populations of O. lanceolata in Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. Increased use of this species began in the early 1990s following a decline in the global sandalwood supply (Mwang’ingo et al. 2004), but the exploitative harvesting of this species in some regions resulted in a decline in the resource and disappearance of the species in some areas (Mwang’ingo et al. 2003). Much of the wood is sold on the international market and subsequently mixed with and sold as Indian sandalwood. While there is considerable variation in santalol content between populations of O. lanceolata (Mwang’ingo et al. 2003), the average santalol content is typically much lower than that of S. album. The adulteration of Indian sandalwood products with 16,000 14,000 Total plantation area (hectares) 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Year Figure 3. Total plantation area of Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum) in Australia, 1999–2012 (Source: industry estimates) 17
120,000 Sandalwood oil production (tonnes) 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 Year Figure 4. Anticipated yields of sandalwood oil from Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum) plantations in Australia, 2019–28 (Source: Clarke 2006) imported African sandalwood has partly eroded market confidence in sandalwood products originating from India. African sandalwood is, however, expected to remain part of the global resource for the next 5–10 years (McKinnell 2008). Although there is research interest in domesticating and planting this species (Mwang’ingo et al. 2004; Teklehaimanot et al. 2004; Mwang’ingo et al. 2005; Mwang’ingo et al. 2007), it is unclear whether plantations are currently being established. 18
Page 1 and 2: Opportunities for the smallholder s
Page 3 and 4: The Australian Centre for Internati
Page 5 and 6: of the Vanuatu sandalwood industry.
Page 7 and 8: Socioeconomics of sandalwood produc
Page 9 and 10: Acknowledgments The authors recogni
Page 11 and 12: Summary Vanuatu is a developing cou
Page 13 and 14: Introduction Sandalwood (Santalum s
Page 15 and 16: (Fiji, Samoa and Tonga). The uncont
Page 17: 140,000 Sandalwood oil production (
Page 21 and 22: Percentage of total Vanuatu exports
Page 23 and 24: the sustainability of wild-harvesti
Page 25 and 26: 120,000 100,000 Seedlings planted 8
Page 27 and 28: 25,000 Established sandalwood seedl
Page 29 and 30: 400 350 Heartwood production (tonne
Page 31 and 32: each of the three products, Summit
Page 33 and 34: Productivity of planted sandalwood
Page 35 and 36: 120 100 Heartwood yield (kg) 80 60
Page 37 and 38: Socioeconomics of sandalwood produc
Page 39 and 40: All input costs were expressed on a
Page 41 and 42: heartwood rotation. This sandalwood
Page 43 and 44: e beyond an individual smallholder
Page 45 and 46: NPV accumulated cash flow (US$) (di
Page 47 and 48: The data used to determine the size
Page 49 and 50: Table 6. Comparison of sandalwood o
Page 51 and 52: 90,000 80,000 70,000 Price (A$/tonn
Page 53 and 54: markets include growing consumer pr
Page 55 and 56: It is also possible to publish draf
Page 57 and 58: Box 2. Industry weaknesses and thre
Page 59 and 60: development strategies are based on
Page 61 and 62: or recognised through an accreditat
Page 63 and 64: Conclusions and recommendations An
Page 65 and 66: References AAG (Australian Agribusi
Page 67 and 68: Mwang’ingo P.L., Tcklchaimanot Z.

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