force-multiplier

Appendix A
History of Chinese Cruise Missile Institutes/
Defense Management System
China’s cruise missile programs have Russian origins, although China was gradually
able to move beyond licensed production and reverse-engineering to creation of
indigenous variants. Exports began in the early 1980s. China regained access to Russian
platforms and missile technology in the early 1990s. Today some cruise missiles in the
PRC inventory are imported directly from Russia while Chinese factories are producing
increasingly capable systems that often incorporate or benefit from access to foreign
components and technical assistance.
Despite having to face the daunting challenges of rebuilding China in the aftermath
of a devastating civil war (1946–1949) and the Korean War (1950–1953), Chairman
Mao Zedong determined that for national security reasons it was absolutely imperative
to establish and develop a domestic defense industrial base. Both resources and organizational
structure were provided and put into place to guide and organize such efforts. 1
Over the years, the government ministries and agencies as well as key research institutions
that have played a critical role in and continue to manage China’s cruise missiles R&D,
prototype production and testing, and adoption and serial production have undergone
many organizational changes. But the programs themselves have remained surprisingly
intact even during years of political upheaval such as the Cultural Revolution.
China began introducing SAMs and ASCMs in the late 1950s. Following the February
1950 Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance and the first Five-Year
Plan for industrial and agricultural development and production (1953–1958), and soon
after the signing of the 1958 bilateral accord on defense cooperation, the Soviet Union
transferred the 542/KS-1 shore-to-ship and 544/P-15/Styx SS-N-2 antiship missiles and
SA-2 SAMs. 2 Despite the departure of Soviet advisors in September 1960 in the wake
of the Beijing-Moscow fallout, the Chinese persevered against all odds and conducted
their first successful missile test in November 1960. 3 During that year, China started copy
production of the SA-2 under the name Hongqi-1 (Red Flag). The missile’s initial classification
process was completed in December 1964, and in June 1966 copy production work
ended. 4 An air-to-ship missile research department was established in 1966. Hongqi-2 was
“classified” in July 1967 and was first used to shoot down a U-2 reconnaissance aircraft
on September 8, 1967. 5 China began R&D on an improved version of the missile, now
named “Hongqi-61,” according to Chinese historical sources. Design work began in 1970,
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