A-Textbook-of-Clinical-Pharmacology-and-Therapeutics-5th-edition
A-Textbook-of-Clinical-Pharmacology-and-Therapeutics-5th-edition
A-Textbook-of-Clinical-Pharmacology-and-Therapeutics-5th-edition
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146 ANAESTHETICS AND MUSCLE RELAXANTS<br />
• Pulmonary blood flow – an increase in cardiac output results<br />
in an increase in pulmonary blood flow <strong>and</strong> more agent is<br />
removed from the alveoli, thereby slowing the rate <strong>of</strong><br />
increase in arterial tension <strong>and</strong> slowing induction. A fall in<br />
pulmonary blood flow, as occurs in shock, hastens<br />
induction.<br />
• Pulmonary ventilation – changes in minute ventilation have<br />
little influence on induction with insoluble agents, as the<br />
alveolar concentration is always high. However, soluble<br />
agents show significant increases in alveolar tension with<br />
increased minute ventilation.<br />
• Arteriovenous concentration gradient – the amount <strong>of</strong><br />
anaesthetic in venous blood returning to the lungs is<br />
dependent on the rate <strong>and</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> tissue uptake. The<br />
greater the difference in tension between venous <strong>and</strong><br />
arterial blood, the more slowly equilibrium will be<br />
achieved.<br />
PHARMACODYNAMICS<br />
MECHANISM OF ACTION AND MEASURE OF<br />
POTENCY<br />
The molecular mechanism <strong>of</strong> action <strong>of</strong> anaesthetics is still<br />
incompletely understood. All general anaesthetics depress<br />
spontaneous <strong>and</strong> evoked activity <strong>of</strong> neurones, especially synaptic<br />
transmission in the central nervous system. They cause<br />
hyperpolarization <strong>of</strong> neurones by activating potassium <strong>and</strong><br />
chloride channels, <strong>and</strong> this leads to an increase in action<br />
potential threshold <strong>and</strong> decreased firing. Progressive depression<br />
<strong>of</strong> ascending pathways in the reticular activating system<br />
produces complete but reversible loss <strong>of</strong> consciousness. The<br />
probable principal site <strong>of</strong> action is a hydrophobic site on<br />
specific neuronal membrane protein channels, rather than<br />
bulk perturbations in the neuronal lipid plasma membrane.<br />
This is consistent with classical observations that anaesthetic<br />
potency is strongly correlated with lipid solubility which were<br />
originally interpreted as evidence that general anaesthetics<br />
act on lipid rather than on proteins.<br />
The relative potencies <strong>of</strong> different anaesthetics are<br />
expressed in terms <strong>of</strong> their minimum alveolar concentration<br />
(MAC), expressed as a percentage <strong>of</strong> alveolar gas mixture at<br />
atmospheric pressure. The MAC <strong>of</strong> an anaesthetic is defined as<br />
the minimum alveolar concentration that prevents reflex<br />
response to a st<strong>and</strong>ard noxious stimulus in 50% <strong>of</strong> the population.<br />
MAC represents one point on the dose– response curve,<br />
but the curve for anaesthetic agents is steep, <strong>and</strong> 95% <strong>of</strong><br />
patients will not respond to a surgical stimulus at 1.2 times<br />
MAC. Nitrous oxide has an MAC <strong>of</strong> 105% (MAC <strong>of</strong> 52.5% at 2<br />
atmospheres, calculated using volunteers in a hyperbaric<br />
chamber) <strong>and</strong> is a weak anaesthetic agent, whereas halothane<br />
is a potent anaesthetic with an MAC <strong>of</strong> 0.75%. If nitrous oxide<br />
is used with halothane, it will have an addi-tive effect on the<br />
MAC <strong>of</strong> halothane, 60% nitrous oxide reducing the MAC <strong>of</strong><br />
halothane by 60%. Opioids also reduce MAC. MAC is reduced<br />
in the elderly <strong>and</strong> is increased in neonates.<br />
HALOTHANE<br />
Use<br />
Halothane is a potent inhalational anaesthetic. It is a clear,<br />
colourless liquid. It is a poor analgesic, but when co-administered<br />
with nitrous oxide <strong>and</strong> oxygen, it is effective <strong>and</strong> convenient.<br />
It is inexpensive <strong>and</strong> used world-wide, although only<br />
infrequently in the UK. Although apparently simple to use, its<br />
therapeutic index is relatively low <strong>and</strong> overdose is easily produced.<br />
Warning signs <strong>of</strong> overdose are bradycardia, hypotension<br />
<strong>and</strong> tachypnoea. Halothane produces moderate muscular<br />
relaxation, but this is rarely sufficient for major abdominal<br />
surgery. It potentiates most non-depolarizing muscle relaxants,<br />
as do other volatile anaesthetics.<br />
Adverse effects<br />
• Cardiovascular:<br />
• ventricular dysrhythmias;<br />
• bradycardia mediated by the vagus;<br />
• hypotension;<br />
• cerebral blood flow is increased, which contraindicates<br />
its use where reduction <strong>of</strong> intracranial pressure is<br />
desired (e.g. head injury, intracranial tumours).<br />
• Respiratory: respiratory depression commonly occurs,<br />
resulting in decreased alveolar ventilation due to a<br />
reduction in tidal volume, although the rate <strong>of</strong> breathing<br />
increases.<br />
• Hepatic. There are two types <strong>of</strong> hepatic dysfunction<br />
following halothane anaesthesia: mild, transient<br />
subclinical hepatitis due to the reaction <strong>of</strong> halothane with<br />
hepatic macromolecules, <strong>and</strong> (very rare) massive hepatic<br />
necrosis due to formation <strong>of</strong> a hapten–protein complex<br />
<strong>and</strong> with a mortality <strong>of</strong> 30–70%. Patients most at risk are<br />
middle-aged, obese women who have previously (within<br />
the last 28 days) had halothane anaesthesia. Halothane<br />
anaesthesia is contraindicated in those who have had<br />
jaundice or unexplained pyrexia following halothane<br />
anaesthesia, <strong>and</strong> repeat exposure is not advised within<br />
three months.<br />
• Uterus: halothane can cause uterine atony <strong>and</strong> postpartum<br />
haemorrhage.<br />
Pharmacokinetics<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> the relatively low blood:gas solubility, induction <strong>of</strong><br />
anaesthesia is rapid but slower than that with is<strong>of</strong>lurane,<br />
sev<strong>of</strong>lurane <strong>and</strong> desflurane. Excretion is predominantly by<br />
exhalation, but approximately 20% is metabolized by the liver.<br />
Metabolites can be detected in the urine for up to three weeks<br />
following anaesthesia.<br />
ISOFLURANE<br />
Is<strong>of</strong>lurane has a pungent smell <strong>and</strong> the vapour is irritant,<br />
making gas induction difficult. Compared with halothane, it<br />
has a lower myocardial depressant effect <strong>and</strong> reduces systemic<br />
vascular resistance through vasodilation. It is popular in<br />
hypotensive anaesthesia <strong>and</strong> cardiac patients, although there