A-Textbook-of-Clinical-Pharmacology-and-Therapeutics-5th-edition
A-Textbook-of-Clinical-Pharmacology-and-Therapeutics-5th-edition
A-Textbook-of-Clinical-Pharmacology-and-Therapeutics-5th-edition
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308 REPRODUCTIVE ENDOCRINOLOGY<br />
gynaecomastia <strong>and</strong> impotence are predictable dose-dependent<br />
effects. There is an increased risk <strong>of</strong> thromboembolism.<br />
Oestrogens are carcinogenic in some animals <strong>and</strong> there is an<br />
increased incidence <strong>of</strong> endometrial carcinoma in women who<br />
have uninterrupted treatment with exogenous oestrogen<br />
unopposed by progestogens.<br />
Pharmacokinetics<br />
Oestrogens are absorbed by mouth <strong>and</strong> via the skin <strong>and</strong> mucous<br />
membranes. The most potent natural oestrogen is oestradiol-17β<br />
which is largely oxidized to oestrone <strong>and</strong> then hydrated to produce<br />
oestriol. All three oestrogens are metabolized in the liver<br />
<strong>and</strong> excreted as glucuronide <strong>and</strong> sulphate conjugates in the bile<br />
<strong>and</strong> urine. Estimation <strong>of</strong> urinary oestrogen excretion provides a<br />
measure <strong>of</strong> ovarian function. Ethinylestradiol has a prolonged<br />
action because <strong>of</strong> slow hepatic metabolism with a half-life <strong>of</strong><br />
about 25 hours.<br />
PROGESTOGENS<br />
Progesterone is a steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual<br />
cycle, pregnancy (it supports gestation) <strong>and</strong> embryogenesis.<br />
Progesterone is the precursor <strong>of</strong> 17-hydroxyprogesterone<br />
which is converted to <strong>and</strong>rostenedione which subsequently is<br />
converted to testosterone, oestrone <strong>and</strong> oestradiol. Progesterone<br />
is produced in the adrenal gl<strong>and</strong>s, by the corpus luteum, the<br />
brain <strong>and</strong> by the placenta.<br />
Progestogens act on tissues primed by oestrogens whose<br />
effects they modify. There are two main groups <strong>of</strong> progestogens,<br />
namely the naturally occurring hormone progesterone<br />
<strong>and</strong> its analogues, <strong>and</strong> the testosterone analogues, such as<br />
norethisterone <strong>and</strong> norgestrel. All progestogens have antioestrogenic<br />
<strong>and</strong> anti-gonadotrophic properties, <strong>and</strong> differ in<br />
their potency <strong>and</strong> their side effects.<br />
Uses <strong>of</strong> progesterone<br />
The uses <strong>of</strong> progesterone are:<br />
• to control anovulatory bleeding;<br />
• to prepare the uterine lining in infertility therapy <strong>and</strong><br />
to support early pregnancy;<br />
• for recurrent pregnancy loss due to inadequate<br />
progesterone production;<br />
• in the treatment <strong>of</strong> intersex disorders, to promote<br />
breast development.<br />
Uses <strong>of</strong> progestogens<br />
The uses <strong>of</strong> progestogens are:<br />
• as part <strong>of</strong> the combined oral contraceptive <strong>and</strong> in the<br />
progestogen-only pill. Medroxyprogesterone acetate<br />
administered by depot injection is used when parenteral<br />
contraception is indicated.<br />
• as an anti-<strong>and</strong>rogen in <strong>and</strong>rogen-sensitive tumours,<br />
such as prostate cancer, e.g. cyproterone acetate;<br />
• as part <strong>of</strong> hormone replacement therapy in women with<br />
an intact uterus to counteract the effects <strong>of</strong> unopposed<br />
oestrogen on the endometrium which can result in<br />
endometrial carcinoma;<br />
• endometriosis;<br />
• in menstrual disorders, such as premenstrual tension,<br />
dysmenorrhoea <strong>and</strong> menorrhagia;<br />
• progestogens in common use include norethisterone,<br />
levonorgestrel, desogestrel, norgestimate <strong>and</strong> gestodene,<br />
which are all derivatives <strong>of</strong> norgestrel. These differ<br />
considerably in potency. The newer progestogens,<br />
desogestrel, gestodene <strong>and</strong> norgestimate produce good<br />
cycle control <strong>and</strong> have a less marked adverse effect on<br />
plasma lipids; however, studies have shown that oral<br />
contraceptives containing desogestrel <strong>and</strong> gestodene are<br />
associated with an increase <strong>of</strong> around two-fold in the risk<br />
<strong>of</strong> venous thromboembolism compared to those<br />
containing other progestogens <strong>and</strong> should be avoided in<br />
women with risk factors for thromboembolic disease.<br />
Desogestrel, drospirenone (a derivative <strong>of</strong> spironolactone<br />
with anti-<strong>and</strong>rogenic <strong>and</strong> anti-mineralocorticoid<br />
properties) <strong>and</strong> gestodene should be considered for<br />
women who have side effects, such as acne, headache,<br />
depression, weight gain, breast symptoms <strong>and</strong><br />
breakthrough bleeding with other progestogens. The<br />
progestogen norelgestromin is combined with<br />
ethinylestradiol in a transdermal contraceptive patch.<br />
Mechanism <strong>of</strong> action<br />
Progestogens act on intracellular cytoplasmic receptors <strong>and</strong><br />
initiate new protein formation. Their main contraceptive effect<br />
is via an action on cervical mucus which renders it impenetrable<br />
to sperm. Nortestosterone derivatives are partially<br />
metabolized oestrogenic metabolites which may account for<br />
some additional anti-ovulatory effect. A pseudodecidual change<br />
in the endometrium further discourages implantation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
zygote.<br />
Pharmacokinetics<br />
Progesterone is subject to presystemic hepatic metabolism <strong>and</strong><br />
is most effective when injected intramuscularly or administered<br />
sublingually. It is excreted in the urine as pregnanediol<br />
<strong>and</strong> pregnanelone. It has prolonged absorption <strong>and</strong> an elimination<br />
half-life <strong>of</strong> 25–50 hours. It is highly protein bound.<br />
Norethisterone, a synthetic progestogen used in many oral contraceptives,<br />
is rapidly absorbed orally, is subject to little presystemic<br />
hepatic metabolism <strong>and</strong> has a half-life <strong>of</strong> 7.5–8 hours.<br />
THE COMBINED ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE<br />
Since the original pilot trials in Puerto Rico proved that steroid<br />
oral contraception was feasible, this method has become the<br />
leading method <strong>of</strong> contraception world-wide. Nearly 50% <strong>of</strong><br />
all women in their twenties in the UK use this form <strong>of</strong> contraception.<br />
It is the most consistently effective contraceptive<br />
method <strong>and</strong> allows sexual relations to proceed without interruption,<br />
but it lacks the advantage <strong>of</strong> protection against sexually<br />
transmitted disease that is afforded by condoms. The most<br />
commonly used oestrogen is ethinylestradiol. The main contraceptive<br />
action <strong>of</strong> the combined oral contraceptive (COC) is<br />
to suppress ovulation by interfering with gonadotrophin