Contents - Konrad Lorenz Institute

Vertical and Horizontal Learning
might imply focus on the pavements of Champs Élyseés
and general weather conditions of Paris, while
historical events and memorials are ignored.
What is true, however, of explicit learning is detachment
from context understood as either condensation
of reality to, (a) variables of one’s choice
or (b) simplification of parameters in learning situation
by idealisation 4 .
Why is that Firstly, processing of symbolically
represented knowledge (that is knowledge that can
be mentally manipulated) is restricted. The number
of elements that can possibly be stored in shortterm
memory (working memory) seems limited. For
instance, it is possible to retain only 3–4 colours or
orientations in visual working memory at a time
(VOGEL/WOODMAN/LUCK 2001). Limitations also exert
themselves in the number of digits in telephone
numbers one can hold in memory (SQUIRE/KANDEL
1999). In practice the actual number of variables relevant
to any given learning situation is constrained
by this limited capacity. Thus keeping in mind certain
features at the expense of others is inevitable
(see also DREYFUS/DREYFUS 1986, 1998). Accentuating
certain parameters takes place at the expense of
an infinite number of potential relevant parameters.
Crudely put the production of knowledge simultaneously
results in the production of non-knowledge
(HOFFMEYER 1984).
Secondly, the very interpretive process of abstract
thought fragments real life entities into nonexistent
pieces of thought, which are mentally manageable
but lack one-to-one correspondence to actual referents.
To exemplify; when speaking of ‘Granny
Smith’ as a type of green apple, one determines all
Granny Smith apples as green. Naturally, this seems
trivial. But if one scrutinises apple skins, the use of
the notion ‘green’ seems unjustified. The actual colour
of Grannies might change from apple to apple,
might be a mixture of a large variety of colours that
exist exclusively in conjunction with the angle of
observation, the light intensity and the viewing distance.
Postulates about the colour of apple skins
ease the burden of communication, but ‘green
Grannies’ as a notion, i.e., abstracted from actual
apples understood as a single colour, easily disclosed
by scrutiny, do not exist in reality. By denoting, for
example, the colour green, verbal (or symbolic)
identification demarcates referents in the world that
do not actually exist detached from context. If Martians,
that neither defecated nor ate were to visit
Earth (as described by DAWKINS 1998) and see apples
for the first time they would probably not respond
to the same features as we do. Perhaps they would
even question whether apples were separate from
branches or leaves, for the simple reason that they
were indifferent to the consequences of such information,
i.e., being non-eaters.
Some might hold that the example about the colour
of apple skins is misleading, since, this argument
might hold with respect to ‘green’ but not
with respect to natural kinds such as gold and tigers.
However, one can rebut the objection by the claim
that definitions of gold and tigers still imply an accentuation
of certain criteria at the expense of others.
By convention we apply criteria and thereby denote
gold or tiger (KURODA 1998). By stressing
certain features (for instance greenness) of apples
the notion of apple is detached from the context in
which any apple actually appears. As such, symbol
use virtually constructs reality in a radical way.
While condensation of reality in the sense of reduction
of numbers of variables might principally
be overcome by improved cognitive abilities such as
increased memory span (COLLINS 2001), detachment
of context by simplification seems insurmountable.
To fully comprehend the implications
of creating cognitive schemas for objects think of
the familiar table. Normally, we encounter no difficulty
in defining where the table begins or ends although
molecularly speaking (at the micro level)
‘ending’ and ‘beginning’ is meaningless. Incessant
exchanges of molecules blur the boundaries between
table and space. After all, it is meaningful to
presuppose the existence of ending and beginning
of tables simply because human perception operates
at the macro level (at which Newton’s laws take effect)
(LAKOFF 1990).
Implicit Learning and
Condensation of Reality
So far I have claimed that explicit learning is subordinate
to (or is characterised by) detachment of context
by 1) reducing the number of variables in a
given learning situation due to perspective taking
and 2) accentuating certain features of the variables
and ignoring others. How does the question of detachment
from context relate to implicit learning
Of interest is whether implicit learning, by being
responsive to relations between many parameters
without involving awareness, avoids contextual
detachment. My answer is no. But implicit learning
is significantly less detached from reality by
there simply being less interpretation, a crucial distinction
when separating explicit from implicit
learning.
Evolution and Cognition ❘ 173 ❘ 2003, Vol. 9, No. 2