On the Design of Flight-Deck Procedures - Intelligent Systems ...

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Figure 7. A Boeing B-757 checklist used by another airline.20
Thus, not only the hardware affects procedures -- the company culture and the structure of theoperational environment also bear on procedural development. In the following sub-section we havelisted some of these social factors. This is not an exhaustive list.5.4.1 The Nature of the Carrier's OperationsThe operational character of the airline may dictate certain procedures. For example, a short-hauloperator flying many legs per aircraft per day may wish to minimize ground time. At intermediate stops,the pilots may remain in the cockpit and keep certain equipment powered in order to facilitate a rapidturn-around at the station. A carrier operating identical equipment over fewer, longer legs would call fora complete shutdown at intermediate stations, and the pilots would probably depart the cockpit. Twodifferent types of checklists would have to be designed to support the different type of operations. Achecklist insensitive to the differences would result in a sub-optimal operation, and probably a high rateof procedural deviations.5.4.2 Influence of a Strong LeaderSome procedures stem from the biases and personalities of the managers and executives. Legend has itthat Captain Eddie Rickenbacker insisted that Eastern Airlines use a QFE altimeter on approaches, inaddition to the QNH altimeter, following an altitude-related accident 7 . QFE altimetry existed at EasternAirlines until about three years before its demise 8 . Note that the decision to use QFE altimetry onapproach and takeoff invokes a host of procedures peculiar to that airline.5.4.3 Influence of Corporate CultureThe term “corporate culture” is a somewhat vague and elusive concept in the sociology of organizations.Culture refers to the underlying values, beliefs, and principals that serve as the foundation for anorganizational management system as well as a set of management practices and behaviors that exemplifyand reinforce those principals (Deal and Kennedy, 1983). As difficult as corporate culture is to define, itdoes exist and does exert an influence on philosophy and policies of operation. Certainly corporationsdo have a culture, stemming largely from the nature of their business, their geographic location, thebackground of their founders and present management. Strong cultural influence is portrayed whenvalues and actions are consistent. This consistency serves to improve performance and efficiency. Forexample, one airline that we surveyed has a culture that places a high value on discipline, order, anddevotion to duty. This, we believe, leads to an operating concept that is rigidly procedurized and highlystandardized. The flight crews “religiously” adhere to their “SOPA” (SOP Amplified), which is the“bible” by which the airline is operated. It is a meticulously detailed description of procedures and tasks.An example of the extent of this company’s procedures can be seen in their system for altitude calloutsprior to target altitude. Unlike most airlines which require a callout 1000 feet prior to the target altitude,the SOPA mandates two altitude callouts, the first at 2000 feet, then a second one at 1000 feet.5.5 ECONOMICALLY-DRIVEN INFLUENCESThe cockpit is not oblivious to market and economic pressures (Monan and Cheaney, 1990). But theextent to which economic forces may have penetrated the flight deck and affected cockpit procedures maynot be obvious. For convenience, we will divide these forces into two parts: market, or public relationsprocedures; and resource conservation procedures.5.5.1 Public Relations ProceduresMost companies require the cockpit crew to make periodic public address (PA) announcements to thepassengers in the interest of public relations. Although PA’s are always at the captain's discretion, weare aware of at least one airline that specifies an altitude (on descent) at which the PA announcement is to7 QFE altimeter displays aircraft altitude in reference to airport elevation. QNH altimeter displays aircraft altitude inreference to mean sea level.8 To our knowledge, only one U.S. carrier (American Airlines) still uses the QFE altimeter in domestic operations.21
Page 2 and 3: TABLE OF CONTENTSSUMMARY ..........
Page 4 and 5: 1. INTRODUCTIONWhen we try to pick
Page 6 and 7: Hendrick (1987) states that human f
Page 8 and 9: influenced by the individual philos
Page 10 and 11: 3. THE FOURTH P: PRACTICES3.1. AN E
Page 12 and 13: To summarize, the ultimate factor t
Page 14 and 15: Humor. Humor is closely related to
Page 16 and 17: technical deficiencies, induce work
Page 18 and 19: operations and the philosophy of th
Page 20 and 21: 5.3 MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONSMergers
Page 24 and 25: e made. Consider, also, the followi
Page 26 and 27: flight operations, the philosophy m
Page 28 and 29: 5.7.3 Technique and PoliciesAny giv
Page 30 and 31: For example, one company constantly
Page 32 and 33: 6. ISSUES IN PROCEDURE DESIGN6.1 CO
Page 34 and 35: solution involves “anchoring” a
Page 36 and 37: On August 19, 1980, a Saudi Arabian
Page 38 and 39: 3. The procedures allow the other a
Page 40 and 41: coordination of tasks between agent
Page 42 and 43: Similarly, it has been a common pra
Page 44 and 45: 7.1.3 Structure of ProceduresAs men
Page 46 and 47: mission simulation (see Wiener et a
Page 48 and 49: felt that this is an efficient tech
Page 50 and 51: esponse. The PF, therefore, can con
Page 52 and 53: 7.5.1 Cross-fleet StandardizationCr
Page 54 and 55: 1. Training department (for both pi
Page 56 and 57: REFERENCESAviation Week and Space T
Page 58 and 59: Perrow, C. (1986). Complex organiza
Page 60 and 61: APPENDICESAppendix 1 - Guidelines f
Page 62 and 63: 14. In managing automated cockpits,
Page 64 and 65: APPENDIX 3 - QUESTIONS ASKED OF FLI
Page 66 and 67: APPENDIX 5 - QUESTIONS ASKED DURING
Page 68 and 69: 8. Change in operational environmen

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