esponse. The PF, <strong>the</strong>refore, can concentrate on <strong>the</strong> climb-out and not be bo<strong>the</strong>red with <strong>the</strong>AFTER TAKEOFF checklist.4. Eliminating secondary tasks. There are two methods to achieve this. <strong>On</strong>e is by “assigning”<strong>the</strong> task to a machine. For example, in an earlier Section (6.3) we discussed one company’sconcern about PNF being occupied by making radio altimeter callouts and not monitoring <strong>the</strong>landing. The solution, currently under implementation, is to use a feature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> GPWS that willsound <strong>the</strong>se calls automatically.Ano<strong>the</strong>r method is to eliminate <strong>the</strong> task completely. For example, some airlines have a sterile-cockpit lightswitch to indicate this state to <strong>the</strong> cabin crew members. Pilots would switch it “on” or “<strong>of</strong>f” crossing10,000 feet. O<strong>the</strong>r carriers do not have such a light, <strong>the</strong>reby eliminating this task and <strong>the</strong> associatedprocedures.7.4 IMPLEMENTING PROCEDURES<strong>On</strong>e should not assume that management's duties are over once a procedure is designed and implemented.The practices <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> users and <strong>the</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> procedure are also within <strong>the</strong> responsibility <strong>of</strong>management.A common complaint <strong>of</strong> many flight crews is that procedures are being changed in a rate far greater thanwould seem required by such external factors such as new FAR or ATC procedures, new equipment, etc.Many believe that flight managers sometimes change procedures for <strong>the</strong> sake <strong>of</strong> making a politicalstatement or to justify a project that <strong>the</strong>y are responsible for. The situation can be alleviated bymanagement seeking to minimize non-essential procedure and checklist changes, and by, whereverpossible, explaining <strong>the</strong> reasons for <strong>the</strong> changes. Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> counter-measures that management can takein attempting to avoid minimize non-essential procedural changes are listed below.Guideline #19: Frequent procedure and checklist changes lead flight crews to conclude that <strong>the</strong>system is unstable. This may diminish <strong>the</strong> importance <strong>the</strong>y attribute to new and modifiedprocedure. Therefore, management should minimize frequent procedures or checklist changes. Itis probably better to bunch <strong>the</strong>m toge<strong>the</strong>r and make larger, less frequent “bundles” <strong>of</strong> changes if<strong>the</strong> items are not time-critical.7.4.1 ExperimentationWe recommend that important flight-deck procedures should be validated experimentally by testing <strong>the</strong>magainst <strong>the</strong> behavior <strong>of</strong> line pilots, and not <strong>the</strong> judgment <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs. The experimentation should take placein <strong>the</strong> appropriate flight simulator using a true sample <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> target population, i.e., line pilots, as opposedto management pilots. The dependent variables such as flow, time, correctness, subjective ratings,workload ratings, etc., should be analyzed to determine <strong>the</strong> optimum results. Evaluation in a full missionsimulation environment, although expensive and time-consuming, can go a long way towarddemonstrating potential “pitfalls” <strong>of</strong> procedures under evaluation (Mosier, Palmer, and Degani, 1992). Asimulator test will uncover possible problems that would not be apparent to persons writing proceduresand checklists “around <strong>the</strong> table.”As stated in Section 6.2.3, <strong>the</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> a procedure should always be <strong>the</strong> same, i.e., independent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>constraints in <strong>the</strong> operational environment. To achieve this, procedures must be tested throughout <strong>the</strong>possible constraints, or scenarios, prior to implementation. This will reduce <strong>the</strong> likelihood <strong>of</strong>modifications to <strong>the</strong> procedure down <strong>the</strong> road. A proper procedure must work well in any ATCenvironment, under any reasonable workload level, wea<strong>the</strong>r, terrain, or geographical location. Particularscrutiny should be applied to trans-oceanic operating procedures, due to <strong>the</strong>ir special sensitivity to error.7.4.2 Documenting <strong>Procedures</strong>It is extremely important that <strong>the</strong> operational logic that leads to <strong>the</strong> construct <strong>of</strong> a procedure be documentedand maintained. Documentation is essential in order to provide for <strong>the</strong> efficient and cost effective48
development, modifications, and maintenance, as well as for understanding <strong>the</strong> concepts behind acomplicated set <strong>of</strong> procedures (Sheppard, 1987).While observing several procedure-design sessions, we noted that flight management personnel who wereresponsible for designing procedure could not recall <strong>the</strong> operational logic and <strong>the</strong> constraints that promptedan existing procedural sequence. This is understandable, specially in light <strong>of</strong> constant change in personalin flight management departments. However, <strong>the</strong> result is inefficiency -- much time is spent in trying torecall or understand <strong>the</strong> logic and constraints that led to <strong>the</strong> construct <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> procedure. Critical constraintsmay be forgotten, and what is even worse, constraints that may no longer exist, are being “carried along.”Such documentation can be tied into <strong>the</strong> “Four-P” model, showing <strong>the</strong> logical links between <strong>the</strong>procedures, policies, and philosophies. They can be also extremely helpful when questions arise whileflight crews learn new procedures during transition training.Guideline #20: The SOP documentation should not only explain <strong>the</strong> mechanics <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>procedure, but also state <strong>the</strong> logic behind it. A detailed account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> operational logic, systemconstraints, and <strong>the</strong> link to <strong>the</strong> “Four-P” model should be part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> documentation.7.4.3 “Selling” <strong>Procedures</strong><strong>On</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> decision to change a procedure is approved by flight management and <strong>the</strong> FAA’s principaloperations inspector, <strong>the</strong> change must be communicated to <strong>the</strong> line pilots. This may seem <strong>the</strong> most trivialpart <strong>of</strong> procedure modification -- but it is not. Pilots will usually, in some form or ano<strong>the</strong>r, resistchanges in procedures, particularly <strong>the</strong> ones that may seem as “change for <strong>the</strong> sake <strong>of</strong> change.”Management must be able to persuade itself and <strong>the</strong> line pilots that <strong>the</strong> procedure change is trulynecessary and beneficial. <strong>Flight</strong> crews, <strong>the</strong>refore, have to know <strong>the</strong> why behind a procedure change andnot just what and how. The “Four-P” model could be used in this regard, as <strong>the</strong> logical progressionfrom philosophies, policies, to procedures can be shown.<strong>Flight</strong> management can be creative in making this “sell.” For example, one airline sent a video tape to allpilots in <strong>the</strong> fleet, explaining and presenting <strong>the</strong> new upcoming changes. If procedure changes are justsent out as a revision to <strong>the</strong> manual and not properly communicated, <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> likelihood <strong>of</strong> properimplementation is low.7.5 IMPLEMENTING STANDARDIZATIONPerrow (1986) contrasts <strong>the</strong> complex human-machine systems <strong>of</strong> nuclear power plants with aircraftoperations: “In <strong>the</strong> aircraft and <strong>the</strong> ATC system, we let more <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> operating environment in -- itcomplicates <strong>the</strong> situation” (p. 229). This factor, <strong>the</strong> complexity associated with <strong>the</strong> interaction with <strong>the</strong>ever changing operational environment, is critical in any attempt at standardization. If one could bettercontrol <strong>the</strong> environment, <strong>the</strong>n a greater level standardization could be achieved (Landau and Stout,1979). Unfortunately, that is almost impossible.When a company is relatively small, standardization is sometimes achieved by default 18 . Pilotstraditionally had a clear career path, i.e., <strong>the</strong>y transition through <strong>the</strong> different seats in a consistentsequential manner. Never<strong>the</strong>less, in today’s mega-carriers, this clear career path does not exist because<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sheer size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> organization, <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> bases, and <strong>the</strong> variety <strong>of</strong> aircraft in a company's fleet.This is why standardization has become such an important issue. There are several components to <strong>the</strong>efficient standardization <strong>of</strong> procedures, which we shall now discuss.18 Note that we have used <strong>the</strong> term "standardization" in two ways in this report. In <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> present discussion, itrefers to commonalty <strong>of</strong> cockpit hardware and procedures within and across fleets. In previous discussions (see Section3.2.3), <strong>the</strong> term referred to management's function in quality control <strong>of</strong> pilot performance in adherence to procedures andregulations. In <strong>the</strong> first sense, it is hardware and supporting documentation and devices that are standardized, in <strong>the</strong> second itis <strong>the</strong> crew members' behavior.49
- Page 2 and 3: TABLE OF CONTENTSSUMMARY ..........
- Page 4 and 5: 1. INTRODUCTIONWhen we try to pick
- Page 6 and 7: Hendrick (1987) states that human f
- Page 8 and 9: influenced by the individual philos
- Page 10 and 11: 3. THE FOURTH P: PRACTICES3.1. AN E
- Page 12 and 13: To summarize, the ultimate factor t
- Page 14 and 15: Humor. Humor is closely related to
- Page 16 and 17: technical deficiencies, induce work
- Page 18 and 19: operations and the philosophy of th
- Page 20 and 21: 5.3 MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONSMergers
- Page 22 and 23: Figure 7. A Boeing B-757 checklist
- Page 24 and 25: e made. Consider, also, the followi
- Page 26 and 27: flight operations, the philosophy m
- Page 28 and 29: 5.7.3 Technique and PoliciesAny giv
- Page 30 and 31: For example, one company constantly
- Page 32 and 33: 6. ISSUES IN PROCEDURE DESIGN6.1 CO
- Page 34 and 35: solution involves “anchoring” a
- Page 36 and 37: On August 19, 1980, a Saudi Arabian
- Page 38 and 39: 3. The procedures allow the other a
- Page 40 and 41: coordination of tasks between agent
- Page 42 and 43: Similarly, it has been a common pra
- Page 44 and 45: 7.1.3 Structure of ProceduresAs men
- Page 46 and 47: mission simulation (see Wiener et a
- Page 48 and 49: felt that this is an efficient tech
- Page 52 and 53: 7.5.1 Cross-fleet StandardizationCr
- Page 54 and 55: 1. Training department (for both pi
- Page 56 and 57: REFERENCESAviation Week and Space T
- Page 58 and 59: Perrow, C. (1986). Complex organiza
- Page 60 and 61: APPENDICESAppendix 1 - Guidelines f
- Page 62 and 63: 14. In managing automated cockpits,
- Page 64 and 65: APPENDIX 3 - QUESTIONS ASKED OF FLI
- Page 66 and 67: APPENDIX 5 - QUESTIONS ASKED DURING
- Page 68 and 69: 8. Change in operational environmen