On the Design of Flight-Deck Procedures - Intelligent Systems ...

APPENDIX 6 - CATEGORIES OF FACTORS THAT TRIGGER PROCEDURE CHANGEThe following is a list of seventeen categories of events that prompted procedure changes:1. New equipment. Example: TCAS.The introduction of TCAS required the development of procedures for the configuration of theequipment, exercise of options (e.g., TA-only vs. TA/RA mode for takeoff), and then in-flightprocedures in the event of TAs and RAs. Since TCAS was an entirely new development, procedurewriters had to “start from scratch,” as there was no history nor precedent for airborne collision warningdevices.2. New regulation. Example: No-smoking rule in the cabin.Although the no-smoking rule (first for flights under two hours, later extended to flights under sixhours) was aimed at behavior in the passenger cabin, it impacted the cockpit in that the no-smoking lighthad previously been used for various cockpit signals to the cabin personnel. With the enactment of thesmoking regulations, the no-smoking sign was left “on,” and other signals had to be devised.3. Unfavorable experience. Example: High rate of altitude deviation violations.In 1990, USAir was experiencing a high rate of altitude deviations (four FAA-reported cases per month).A thorough study resulted in a procedural intervention whereby the pilot not flying entered the commandaltitude in the alerter, repeated the altitude orally, and keep his or her finger on the knob until the pilotflying repeated the altitude and also touched the alerter. If there was any difference in their callout, thePNF had to resolve it by calling ATC. In the months following the intervention, FAA-reported casesdropped to less than one per month (Glines, 1992).4. New routes. Example: Extended two-engine operations (ETOPS).The use of two-engine transports such as the B-767 and A-310 on long over-water flights demanded thedevelopment of a series of special procedures, even above those required for international flight of threeandfour-engine aircraft. For example, after takeoff, at a certain time into the flight, the aircraft wouldhave to be re-released when it reached the “ETOPS entry point.” Special procedures were also neededfor selection of alternates. (Hughes, 1992; Steenblik, 1991).5. New management. Example: Mergers and acquisitions.In the event of a merger or acquisition (see Section 5.3), the acquiring company typically standardizesthe acquired fleets against their own, by imposing its procedures on the combined fleet. This usuallyresults in considerable retraining for the acquired pilots. Where a new aircraft model is acquired in amerger or acquisition, considerable procedure writing is necessary to bring its procedures intoconformity with those of the acquiring carrier. (Degani and Wiener, 1990, pp. 27-28).6. New ATC procedure. Example: Procedure for LDA approach at San Francisco International(SFO).The current LDA approach to Runway 28R at SFO requires an entire page of explanation (11-3A) in theJeppesen manual to detail all of the procedures. Pilots have asked, “What if I'm set up for somethingelse and I get shifted to the LDA? Am I supposed to take the time to read this page?”7. Labor relations. Example: Power back from gates.In the 1980's airlines began the practice of powering back from the gate. This called for the developmentof a set of cockpit and cockpit-ground communication procedures. The motivation for power-back waslargely to sidestep labor contracts which required that mechanics be used to push the aircraft back.65