Progress Amid Resistance

108 WOMEN’S RIGHTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICAelections, to account for the addition of 64 seats reserved for women.Members serve five-year terms. 53The 2005 elections for the People’s Assembly were marked by oneof the lowest female participation rates in decades. There were only 131women out of 5,165 candidates, of which only four were elected. Subsequently,Mubarak appointed five women to the chamber, bringing thetotal to nine; 54 one later resigned, reportedly under pressure from her husband,a powerful member of the ruling party. 55 In general, the electionswere characterized by vote fraud and violence, as well as a conspicuouslack of security that resulted in the deaths of at least 11 people. 56 Thedisorder deterred many women from voting and running for office, andin some instances hired thugs molested female candidates and verbally ha -rassed them by making implications about their sexual morality. Femalecampaign workers and voters were in some cases turned away from pollingplaces due to their support for female candidates. 57As of 2009, there were 18 female members in the 264-seat ConsultativeCouncil. No women were elected to the body during the 2004 midtermelections, although Mubarak subsequently appointed 11 women. Tenwomen out of 609 candidates competed for seats in 2007; only one wassuccessful, and nine were subsequently appointed. 58The right of women to participate as candidates in elections is hinderedby their socioeconomic dependence on men and a patriarchal culture thatmistrusts female leaders. Women often lack the financial resources and personalconnections that are necessary for a successful campaign. Accordingto a survey conducted by the UN Development Programme (UNDP),fewer Egyptians favor female political empowerment than do those inthe three other countries surveyed: Morocco, Lebanon, and Jordan. Thestudy found that just over 60 percent of the Egyptians interviewed believewomen should have the right to political participation, and 66.1 percentbelieve that women should have the right to become a cabinet minister.Worse still, only 45.9 percent believe women should have the right to be -come prime minister, and a mere 25.7 percent believe women should havethe right to become head of state. 59 Reflecting this lack of confidence infemale leaders, political parties tend to nominate few female candidates,meaning most run as independents.Women are poorly represented in local government. In December2008, lawyer and Coptic Christian Eva Kyrolos became the first female