Progress Amid Resistance

130 WOMEN’S RIGHTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICAAUTONOMY, SECURITY, AND FREEDOM OF THE PERSONIn Iran, the behavior and sexuality of women, especially younger women,is traditionally viewed as a matter of family honor that must be controlledby a woman’s father, brothers, and husband. Since the establishment of theIslamic Republic and the application of Shari‘a to all public and privatespheres, the state has inserted itself into this role, pledging to “protect thehonor of the nation’s women” in terms of their public appearance andapparel, sexuality, personal interactions, and spatial mobility. This stateintrusion violates the autonomy, security, and freedom of all persons, andwomen in particular are negatively affected.Iran is a heterogeneous country combining many ethnic, religious,tribal, and regional crosscurrents. Although the majority of the populationare Persian Shiites, ethnic minorities—including Azeris, Gilaki andMazandarani, Kurds, Arabs, Lurs, Baloch, Turkmens, and others—makeup a significant portion of the population. Women belonging to certaingroups may face unique constraints imposed by their culture or religiousdenomination. Some patriarchal practices and gender-related restrictionsagainst women, such as “honor killings” and forced marriage, are moreprevalent in the more impoverished and less developed provinces largelypopulated by ethnic minorities such as Arabs and Kurds.Article 13 of the constitution recognizes Christians, Jews, and Zoroastriansas religious minorities and grants them limited freedom of religiouspractice, education, and political representation within the Majlis.However, conversion by Muslims to other religions is considered apostasy,as is being a member of the unrecognized Baha’i faith. Baha’i men andwomen are routinely denied the fundamental legal protections and statebenefits afforded to other Iranians, and even recognized religious minoritiesare subject to various forms of discrimination. Muslim women arenot permitted to marry non-Muslim men, but the non-Muslim wives ofMuslim men are presumed to have accepted Islam. The personal statusof the members of recognized religious minorities, such as Christiansand Jews, are governed by their own sectarian laws. Nonetheless, certaindiscriminatory rules such as mandatory hijab and sex segregation applyto all citizens regardless of their religious or nonreligious beliefs or values.Women’s freedom of movement is restricted by both cultural traditionsand legal restrictions. A woman may not obtain a passport or leavethe country without her husband’s written permission. 30 In addition, the