Progress Amid Resistance

POLITICAL RIGHTS AND CIVIC VOICELEBANON 269Although women energetically fought for and achieved political rightsover half a century ago, they have not been fully integrated into politicallife. A major factor behind this problem is the entrenched sectarianpolitical system. Representation is apportioned on a sectarian basis, andpowerful political families tend to retain the leadership of their respectivecommunities, leaving women with only a token presence in the decisionmakingpositions of the state and political parties. Prevailing patriarchalviews on gender roles, reinforced by the blending of political and religiousidentity, discourage female political participation, and women have difficultymatching the financial resources of male incumbents during electoralcampaigns. 63 Very little has changed regarding women’s political rights inrecent years, and repeated attempts to introduce a gender-based quota forwomen in parliamentary elections have been unsuccessful.Lebanese women obtained the right to vote and run for seats in theNational Assembly, the country’s parliament, in 1953. The first Lebanesefemale member of parliament took office in 1963, having run unopposedto complete the term of her father, who had died without leaving a maleheir. After her term ended, Lebanon did not have another female lawmakeruntil 1991, when one woman was appointed to replace her deceased husband.Three women were elected to the 128-seat parliament in 1992, andthe number remained unchanged in the 1996 and 2000 elections, finallyrising to six in 2005. In most of these instances, the successful candidateseither belonged to traditional political families or were related to prominentmale politicians. 64In the most recent elections, held on June 7, 2009, four women wereelected to the National Assembly. 65 Once again, the typical female lawmakerwas a close relative of a prominent male leader. The number ofwomen in the parliament decreased in part because two of the incumbentfemale members, both widows of former presidents, stepped aside to allowtheir sons to contest the seats, although only one of the male heirs succeeded.Apart from the feudal political system, which equally impacts bothmale and female candidates, women are at a particular disadvantage due totheir traditionally limited access to financial resources. Female challengesrunning in their own right often find themselves competing with wellfinanced,male-dominated political machines. They must also contend