Progress Amid Resistance

378 WOMEN’S RIGHTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICAEffective enforcement requires the PA to create labor courts and institutefemale-friendly policies therein.F Labor unions should encourage a strong female presence, in partthrough a quota system setting aside 30 percent of seats in decisionmakingbodies, and advocate on behalf of labor issues that affectwomen specifically.POLITICAL RIGHTS AND CIVIC VOICEWomen’s access to and full enjoyment of civil liberties and political rightsare affected by the economic, social, and cultural restraints placed on theirlives within Palestinian society. Despite this, women continue to enjoy thefreedoms of expression and assembly to a moderate degree. Progress inrecent years has included the establishment of limited gender-based quotasystems for legislative and municipal council elections. As a result, women’spolitical participation has increased significantly, particularly at the locallevel. However, the political impact of women is muted by security issues,which often take precedence over women’s demands for equal rights.Equal voting rights are guaranteed under Article 26(3) of the BasicLaw, which establishes universal suffrage and states that all Palestiniansmay vote, nominate candidates, and run for elections. Women living un -der the PA first exercised these rights in 1996, when the first PLC electionswere held. Five female candidates were elected that year.In preparation for the second PLC elections in 2006, a new electorallaw (No. 9 of 2005) was adopted to expand the legislature from 88 to 132seats. 86 Article 3 of the law established a mixed electoral system whereby66 seats were filled through nationwide, party-list proportional representationand the other 66 through contests between individual candidatesin multimember districts. On election day, each voter received two ballots:the first contained 11 nationwide party lists, and the second listedcandidates in the voter’s local constituency. 87 Article 4 of the electoral lawrequired each party list to include at least one woman among the first threenames, at least one woman among the next four names, and at least onewoman in every five names thereafter.Eight women from Fatah, six from Hamas, and one each from threesmaller parties were elected in this way, and one female Fatah candidatewon in the district races, raising women’s overall representation in the PLCfrom 5.7 percent in 1996 to 13.6 percent in 2006. 88 Since 1994, women’s