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3Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda for Renewable Heating & CoolingRHC applications and priorities for residential buildings3.1 Demand characteristicsAccording to the estimates of a recent study of the European Commission 26 for the EU 27Member States, the annual demand for space heating and for hot water in residentialbuildings is respectively around 162 Mtoe (6,766 PJ) and 37 Mtoe (1,555 PJ). Coolingrepresents about 2 Mtoe (87 PJ), or just 1% of the total thermal energy demand.Energy demand for heating and cooling in the residential sector is strongly dependent uponclimatic conditions and follows a clear seasonal pattern.• In Northern and Western Europe, cooling is very seldom needed in domestic houses,so only heat load needs to be covered.• In Central and Eastern Europe, most residential buildings today have only a heatingsystem. However, due to demand for high levels of comfort, an increase in coolingapplications in this region can be expected.• In Southern Europe, demand already exists for cooling in the residential sector. In mostcases a (small) heating device is also installed in at least one or a few rooms.• DHW is essential in all climates; there are specific requirements on temperaturelevel and hygienic aspects. Often there is demand for larger amounts in a short time period(storage).Capacity demand varies from only a few kW th (for small, well-insulated houses) to some 100kW th for blocks of flats. Renewable energy can also be provided to residential houses throughdistrict heating and cooling (see Chapter 6).In new residential houses as well as in existing and refurbished buildings, space heating loadsbecome smaller due to better insulation. New single-family houses, semi-detached or terracedhouses often have no dedicated room for the heating system, requiring a clean andlow-noise system. DHW often represents a significant portion of the thermal energy consumption,exacerbated by the practices currently in use to combat legionella bacteria (e.g. heatingup the storage volume once a day).3.2 Solar thermal technologiesResidential solar thermal applications represent the bulk of the solar thermal systems installedin Europe. The large majority are used for domestic hot water (DHW) preparation;however, in Central Europe a growing share of the systems supports space heatingas well.In Southern Europe, because of the high solar radiation and temperate climates, simplethermosiphon systems are commonly used. In this instance, the solar heat transfer fluidcirculation is naturally driven, since the water store is installed above the solar collector.Usually systems with 1.4 to 2.1 kW th (2-3 m 2 of collector area), using flat plate collectors anda 150 litre store, are used for a family of four. The achieved solar fraction is 50% to 60%.In Northern and Central Europe, for practical reasons, only forced (pumped) circulation solarthermal systems are used since the collector is installed on the roof and the hot water storeis usually situated in the basement. Typically flat plate collectors of 2.8 to 4.2 kW th (4-6 m 2collector area) and a 300 litre store are used for a family of four. The solar fraction for DHWachieved is about 60%.There is a huge potential in the residential use of solar thermal for space heating. The socalled combi-systems (combining DHW and space heating) are mainly used today in centralEurope, especially in Germany, Austria, Switzerland and France. In Germany and Austria,about 50% of newly installed systems are combi-systems with typically 7 - 14 kW th correspondingto 10 to20 m² flat plate collector and a 600 to 1,000 litre hot water store. In a wellinsulatedbuilding, the solar fraction is 25-40% of the overall building heat demand for DHWand space heating.26Pardo et al. (2012) .14
RenewableHeating & CoolingEuropean Technology PlatformSolar thermal energy has the technical potential to deliver a large share of heat forresidential buildings. Nonetheless, economical feasibility, meaning delivering heatat a price competitive with the relevant alternatives, is still limited due to the unfaircompetition from fossil energy and high upfront investment cost.Solar thermal has very low running costs (solar radiation is available for free) but require ahigh upfront investment for the solar collector, additional components (water store, plumbing,pumps, controllers, etc.) and installation costs. Operation and maintenance (O&M) costsare very low (1 to 2% per year), particularly when compared with alternative technologies.Figure 9 presents an analysis of the costs of several system configurations referred to above 27compared with costs of useful heat produced using conventional sources (gas or electricity)and common technologies and expressed in EUR/MWh. Costs are determined on the basisof the following assumptions:• Solar heat costs are determined for typical low and high price systems differentiated bytype of application and sometimes radiation. The solar heat price is calculated by addingthe overall system costs (investment, installation, financing, operation, maintenance, incl.VAT) minus the costs saved by the solar thermal system, e.g. for the hot water storage. 28By dividing the costs through the solar thermal energy yield over the lifetime of 15 yearsfor thermosiphon systems and 20 years for all other systems, the solar heat costs arecalculated. For solar radiation the reference locations of Würzburg for Central / NorthernEurope and Athens for Southern Europe are used.• In comparison with the solar heat costs, the cost of “useful heat” from electricity andnatural gas is shown. The “useful heat” is calculated by multiplying the energy content ofelectricity and natural gas with the conversion efficiency factor (95 and 85%). Accordingto Eurostat data 29 , the average costs of energy supplied to homes in the European Unionin the second half of 2011 is in the range between 27.65 and 116.52 EUR/MWh for naturalNon-renewable energy for heating and coolinggas and between 87.4 and 297.5 EUR/MWh for electricity 30 .27Costs of solar cooling are notincluded in Figure 9 since theyare not comparable with heatingcosts and only demonstrationplants and early marketprojects are installed yet.283% discount rate applied.Useful heatfrom electricityUseful heatfrom natural gasDistrict heatingCentral EuropeIndustrial process heatSouth / Central EuropeCombi-systemsCentral / Northern EuropeDHW forced circulationCentral / Northern EuropeEU27 average: €77 per MWhEU27 average: €193 per MWhDHW thermosiphon and forcedcirculation Southern Europe0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350Heat costs in € / MWh29European Commission (2012b)30Reference gas prices todomestic consumer duringthe second semester of 2011range between 7.68 €/GJ inRomania and 32.37 €/GJ inSweden. Electricity prices,to domestic consumer variesfrom 87.4 €/MWh in Bulgariaand 297.5 €/MWh in Denmark.31In some countries, mainly insouthern Europe, solar thermalenergy is also already cheaperthan heat from natural gaswith average costs of € 77 perMWh. In central and northernEurope, the solar energy heatcosts for DHW and combisystems,which are the mainapplications today, are with€ 80 to € 230 per MWh usuallymore expensive than heat fromfossil fuels.Figure 9 – Comparison of heat costs between different solar thermal applications in differentregions and costs 200% of useful heat from electricity and natural gas. (Source: ESTTP based 100 on195%data from ESTIF 180% and EUROSTAT).160%According to Figure 9 solar thermal 156%80heat costs vary from about € 30 per MWh for DHW insouthern Europe 140% to € 230 per MWh for combi-systems for DHW and space heating in central125%and northern Europe. 120% In some European countries, especially at southern latitudes, 60 solarthermal heat is 100% already today cheaper than heat from 100% electricity and yet in most countriesheat is generated 80% by natural Learning gas curve factor: heating 23% oil (similar priced as natural gas) 31 .(cost reduction by doubling the76%4060% total installed collector capacity)Collector production cost development Index40%20%0%181995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020Total installed capacity EU27(right axis, in GWth, prediction = bright)Installed micro-CHP capacity (in GWe)57%200Total installed collector capacity in GWthRelative collector production costs, 2010 = 100%(left axis, prediction = dashed)15
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