Nutrition in Combat Sports

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60 F. Halabchi Table 4.1 (continued) S3. Beta-2 agonists S4. Agents with anti-estrogenic activity S5. Diuretics and other masking agents Prohibited methods M1. Enhancement of oxygen transfer 1. Blood doping 2. Artificially enhancing the uptake, transport, or delivery of oxygen M2. Chemical and physical manipulation M3. Gene doping Substances prohibited only in-competition S6. Stimulants S7. Narcotics S8. Cannabinoids S9. Glucocorticosteroids Substances prohibited in particular sports P1. Alcohol a P2. Beta-blockers b a In combat sports, alcohol and beta-blockers are prohibited in karate and wrestling, respectively. The list applies to all sports (including combat sports) and identifies those substances and methods that are prohibited within or out of competition. Examples of drugs within each category are provided in this list, but because new drugs frequently appear on the underground market, the WADA has applied the term “and other substances with a similar chemical structure or similar biological effect(s)” to its lists of examples, where appropriate [26] . 4.4 Drugs Commonly Misused in Combat Sports According to the classification of sports disciplines based on the contact level, all combat sports are classified in collision/contact class. These sports necessitate the high levels of strength, agility, alertness, and some degree of vigor and aggression. Furthermore, in almost all of these disciplines, the athletes should compete in separate weight categories, which may dictate rapid weight loss or gain. So, it is logical that these athletes prefer to abuse drugs, which are supposed to exert beneficial effects on the above-mentioned parameters. In these regards, it seems that there is a trend in combat sports toward the use of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS), stimulants, diuretics, growth hormones, and other peptide hormones. However, the athletes of the combat sports may use other prohibited substances and methods, although with less frequency. In this part, we will discuss regarding the prohibited substances, commonly misused in combat sports, including androgenic anabolic steroids, stimulants, growth hormone, and diuretics.
4 Doping in Combat Sports 61 4.5 Androgenic Anabolic Steroids In spite of numerous reports of health risks associated with their use, anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) remain a widely abused drug [27, 28] . These drugs have been the most commonly detected substances in urine samples of athletes [29] . 4.5.1 Basic Science Testosterone is the primary male hormone. It serves distinct functions at different stages of life. It regulates many physiologic processes in the adult male including muscle protein metabolism, sexual and cognitive functions, erythropoiesis, plasma lipids, and bone metabolism [30] . Anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) are chemically modified analogs of testosterone manufactured to maximize anabolic and minimize androgenic effects [27, 31] . Chemical modifications of testosterone have been useful pharmacologically to alter the relative anabolic–androgenic potency, slow the rate of inactivation, change the pattern of metabolism, or decrease the aromatization to estradiol [32, 33] . Carboxylation of the 17- b -hydroxyl group makes the molecule more soluble in lipid vehicles used for injection and, hence, slows the release of the injected steroid into the circulation [31] . Most orally active AAS preparations are 17- a -alkylated derivatives of testosterone that are relatively resistant to hepatic degradation [34] . Contrary to popular belief, oral administration of an AAS is more dangerous than injection [26] . All of the AAS drugs possess both anabolic and androgenic activity; none are absolutely selective [31] . Testosterone, the active ingredient of AAS, has several possible metabolic actions. First, it binds to the androgen receptor (AR) in target tissues to exert its mostly anabolic effects [31] . Second, it is converted in some target tissues (including skin and liver) into dihydrotestosterone by the 5- a -reductase enzyme, which acts in the cell nucleus of target organs, such as male accessory glands, skin, and prostate [31, 35] . Dihydrotestosterone is responsible of the androgenic effect. This steroid is more potent than testosterone because of increased affinity to the androgen receptor [36] . Finally, it can be aromatized to estradiol to exert estrogenic activities [31] . Anabolic effects of AAS will concern organs as muscles, bones, the heart, and kidneys. These organs possess little 5- a -reductase activity and thus AAS induce protein synthesis, muscle fiber development, erythropoiesis, and stimulation and inhibition of bone growth. In addition, anabolic steroids displace glucocorticoids from glucocorticoid receptors and inhibit muscle protein catabolism, leading overall to an anabolic or muscle-building effect [36] . The anabolic effect of AAS is mediated primarily by androgen receptors (ARs) in skeletal muscle. The AR regulates the transcription of target genes that may control the accumulation of DNA required for muscle growth. It was previously thought that ARs are saturated at physiologic levels of testosterone and that providing supplemental exogenous testosterone
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Combat Sports Medicine
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Editors Ramin Kordi, MD, MSc (Sport
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vi Preface pre-participation physic
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viii Contents 11 Professional Athle
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2 L.M. Burke and G.R. Cox The scien
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4 L.M. Burke and G.R. Cox with tech
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6 L.M. Burke and G.R. Cox Table 1.3
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Page 28 and 29: 20 L.M. Burke and G.R. Cox 31 . Arm
Page 30 and 31: 22 C.A. Horswill Table 2.1 Current
Page 32 and 33: 24 C.A. Horswill 2.2.3 Martial Arts
Page 34 and 35: 26 C.A. Horswill After the wrestler
Page 36 and 37: 28 C.A. Horswill 56 55 54 53 52 51
Page 38 and 39: 30 C.A. Horswill to simulate combat
Page 40 and 41: 32 C.A. Horswill growth data (NHANE
Page 42 and 43: 34 C.A. Horswill Strategies of rapi
Page 44 and 45: 36 C.A. Horswill References 1. Stee
Page 46 and 47: 38 C.A. Horswill 49. Wroble RR , Mo
Page 48 and 49: Chapter 3 Sport Psychology in Comba
Page 50 and 51: 3 Sport Psychology in Combat Sports
Page 62 and 63: 56 F. Halabchi substances). Many ot
Page 64 and 65: 58 F. Halabchi the existing evidenc
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Page 70 and 71: 64 F. Halabchi 4.6.1 Amphetamine Am
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Page 76 and 77: 70 F. Halabchi There are still appr
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Page 80 and 81: 74 J. Gauthier their art in an effo
Page 82 and 83: 76 J. Gauthier sports. To the spect
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Page 86 and 87: 80 J. Gauthier matches, which are p
Page 88 and 89: 82 J. Gauthier 5.4.5 Enjoyable Aest
Page 90 and 91: 84 J. Gauthier this overall relatio
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7 Blood-Borne Infections in Combat
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Chapter 8 Skin Infections in Combat
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8 Skin Infections in Combat Sports
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136 C.B. Pasque 9.2 ACL Injuries in
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138 C.B. Pasque surgery may also be
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140 C.B. Pasque maximal exercise le
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142 C.B. Pasque Studies reporting s
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144 C.B. Pasque extremity trauma. U
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146 C.B. Pasque 6 . Griffin LY , Al
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148 C.B. Pasque 56 . Birrer RB , Bi
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Chapter 10 Children in Combat Sport
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10 Children in Combat Sports 153 ce
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10 Children in Combat Sports 155 ma
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10 Children in Combat Sports 157 Ta
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10 Children in Combat Sports 159 If
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10 Children in Combat Sports 161 Ma
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10 Children in Combat Sports 163 sh
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10 Children in Combat Sports 165 Ta
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10 Children in Combat Sports 167 Fi
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10 Children in Combat Sports 169 of
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10 Children in Combat Sports 171 28
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Chapter 11 Professional Athlete Mar
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11 Professional Athlete 175 11.2 We
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11 Professional Athlete 177 Table 1
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11 Professional Athlete 179 If the
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11 Professional Athlete 181 There a
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11 Professional Athlete 183 complai
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11 Professional Athlete 185 could w
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11 Professional Athlete 187 4. Reti
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11 Professional Athlete 189 occur m
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11 Professional Athlete 191 Table 1
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Chapter 12 Boxing Peter Jako Learni
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12 Boxing 195 In 1994, the Medical
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12 Boxing 197 capacity of a boxer h
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12 Boxing 199 12.9 Developing Stren
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12 Boxing 201 Fig. 12.2 Rupture of
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12 Boxing 203 Second impact syndrom
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12 Boxing 205 Table 12.5 Neurocogni
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12 Boxing 207 ear-nose-throat speci
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12 Boxing 209 Fig. 12.4 An anteropo
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12 Boxing 211 Return to boxing afte
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12 Boxing 213 7. Medical Handbook o
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216 R.R. Wroble allows holds only a
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218 R.R. Wroble joint through a ran
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220 R.R. Wroble sprains/strains is
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222 R.R. Wroble must be stopped. Ti
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224 R.R. Wroble 38.7% of wrestlers
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226 R.R. Wroble whom were wrestlers
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228 R.R. Wroble injuries over an 8-
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230 R.R. Wroble The most common sol
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232 R.R. Wroble 13.4.6 Meniscus Inj
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234 R.R. Wroble 13.5.2 Catastrophic
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236 R.R. Wroble 13.6.1 Physical Cha
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238 R.R. Wroble contact. Contact wi
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240 R.R. Wroble Preventive measure
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242 R.R. Wroble and competitions, a
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244 R.R. Wroble Mysnyk MC , Albrigh
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Chapter 14 Judo Craig White and Pip
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14 Judo 249 indicates increasing ma
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14 Judo 251 3. What are the muscle
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14 Judo 253 anterior band being put
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14 Judo 255 only occur at 2-3 month
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14 Judo 257 - Break grips made by t
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14 Judo 259 Advanced levels of knee
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14 Judo 261 As sports doctors and p
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Chapter 15 Taekwondo Willy Pieter L
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15 Taekwondo 265 15.2 Performance C
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15 Taekwondo 267 Boey and Xie [39]
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15 Taekwondo 269 15.4 Taekwondo Inj
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15 Taekwondo 271 study, there are n
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15 Taekwondo 273 15.4.3 Injury Type
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15 Taekwondo 275 Table 15.5 Distrib
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15 Taekwondo 277 Table 15.7 Percent
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15 Taekwondo 279 Tsai et al. [99] a
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15 Taekwondo 281 Moon [105] reveale
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15 Taekwondo 283 25. Pieter W , Taa
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15 Taekwondo 285 71. Koh JO , de Fr
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Chapter 16 Karate Rafael Arriaza Le
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16 Karate 289 In 1993, WUKO changed
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16 Karate 291 of kicking and sweepi
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16 Karate 293 RC / ppm RC / ppm 250
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16 Karate 295 Table 16.1 Injury cla
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16 Karate 297 5. Nunan D. Developme
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300 S.F. Martinez Table 17.1 Tradit
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302 S.F. Martinez 17.4 Internal “
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304 S.F. Martinez and defensive man
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306 S.F. Martinez 17.6 Sanshou Sans
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308 S.F. Martinez Fig. 17.3 Contemp
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310 S.F. Martinez event, a review o
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312 S.F. Martinez 17.8.5 Cervical S
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314 S.F. Martinez 17.9 Lacerations
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316 S.F. Martinez Fig. 17.6 MRI sho
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318 S.F. Martinez Initial treatment
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320 S.F. Martinez complete meniscec
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Chapter 18 Mixed Martial Arts Grego
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18 Mixed Martial Arts 325 it demons
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18 Mixed Martial Arts 327 fighters
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18 Mixed Martial Arts 329 Although
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Chapter 19 Kickboxing George J. Bus
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19 Kickboxing 333 the style became
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19 Kickboxing 335 Photo courtesy of
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19 Kickboxing 337 of elite amateur
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19 Kickboxing 339 trates the means
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19 Kickboxing 341 contrast to Gartl
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19 Kickboxing 343 training (e.g., s
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19 Kickboxing 345 Macan et al. disc
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19 Kickboxing 347 Considering the m
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19 Kickboxing 349 17 . Plisk SS . S
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Index A ACL. See Anterior cruciate
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Index 353 Corneal abrasion, 186 Cot
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Index 355 injuries classification s
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Index 357 S Saengsirisuwan, V., 341
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Index 359 forearm, wrist, hand, and
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Nutrition in Combat Sports

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