Introduction to Basic Legal Citation - access-to-law home

except for "e.g." which needs a comma before and after it. Only the signal beginning a
citation sentence has its initial letter capitalized. The standard clarifying or qualifying words
include:
(a) Signals that indicate support.
• E.g.,
o Authority states the proposition with which the citation is associated. Other
authorities, not cited, do as well «e.g.». "E.g." used with other signals (in which
case it is preceded by a comma) similarly indicates the existence of other
authorities not cited.
• Accord
o Used following citation to authority referred to in text when there are
additional authorities that either state or clearly support the proposition with
which the citation is associated, but the text quotes only one. Similarly, the law
of one jurisdiction may be cited as being in accord with that of another «e.g.».
• See
o Authority supports the proposition with which the citation is associated either
implicitly or in the form of dicta «e.g.».
• See also
o Authority is additional support for the proposition with which the citation is
associated (but less direct than that indicated by "see" or "accord"). "See also"
is commonly used to refer readers to authorities already cited or discussed
«e.g.». The use of a parenthetical explanation of the source material's relevance
following a citation introduced by "see also" is encouraged.
• Cf.
o Authority supports by analogy "Cf." literally means "compare." The citation
will only appear relevant to the reader if it is explained. Consequently,
parenthetical explanations of the analogy are strongly recommended «e.g.».
(b) Signals that suggest a useful comparison.
• Compare ... with ...
o Comparison of authorities that supports proposition. Either side of the
comparison can have more than one item linked with "and" «e.g.». Parenthetical
explanations of comparison are strongly recommended.
(c) Signals that indicate contradiction.
• Contra
o Authority directly states the contrary of the proposition with which the citation
is associated «e.g.».
• But see
o Authority clearly supports the contrary of the proposition with which citation is
associated «e.g.».
• But cf.
o Authority supports the contrary of the position with which the citation is
associated by analogy. Parenthetical explanations of the analogy are strongly
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