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Isopomoto IIT EnPRO-356, Fall 2006 than for a hybrid, except in areas with the cleanest generation mixes. Table 2 shows the estimated CO2, NOX, and SOX emissions associated with a plug-in running for one year (12,000 miles) entirely on grid electricity generated in California, as well as using a theoretical average fuel mix for the U.S as a whole. 2.3.3 Limitations Table 2: Annual Emissions for a Plug-in Running 100% Electricity in 2005 Region CO2 (lbs) NOX (lbs) SOX (lbs) U.S 4,241 6.3 17.4 California 2,172 2.3 1.8 East Central Asia 6,154 10.6 33.9 While Isopomoto is optimistic about the commercial viability of our product and its ability to solve the problems cited, the PHEV does have some limitations. i. Battery cost. Battery expense is a major hurdle to the commercialization of plug- ins with extensive electric-only range. The cost of a plug-in battery exceeds $10,000 today but could drop to a few thousand dollars in the long term. Such a cost reduction will be achievable largely through economies of scale in the case of nickel-metal hydride batteries, though issues of performance, size and weight remain. Smaller, lighter, lithium-ion batteries are considered more promising for plug-ins, but these batteries will still require major advances in durability and cost before they are ready for this application. ii. Battery size and weight. The size and weight of the batteries are a constraint of PHEV mass production. For example, if a NiMH battery is chosen, this will add more than 250 pounds to the weight of the vehicle and take up roughly 4 cubic feet of space. 8 This is approximately 25% of typical cargo space, and it could lessen appeal to customers. Furthermore, the increased weight will adversely affect both fuel economy and performance. The use of Li-ion batteries could ease weight and cargo space challenges, assuming the above-mentioned issues can be solved. 8 American Council for an Energy-Efficiency Economy 12
Isopomoto IIT EnPRO-356, Fall 2006 2.3.4 Simulation Tool – Advanced Vehicle Simulator (ADVISOR) The simulation of three drive cycles was executed: US EPA Federal Test Procedure (FTP), the Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS), and a highway drive cycle. FTP and UDDS are widely used as typical city drive cycles. The simulation results are tabulated in tables 3 and 4 for city and highway driving respectively. Table 3: Simulation Results of City Drive Cycle Conventional Escape HEV Escape PHEV Escape City (mpg) 23 36 76.3 Table 4: Simulation Results of Highway Drive Cycle Conventional Escape HEV Escape PHEV Escape Highway (mpg) 26 31 58.8 2.3.5 Technical Costs The break-down of these internal and external expenses are discussed below. A summarized table is also provided at the end (see table 5). The internal costs include the battery, AC/DC converter, DC/DC converter, and assembly labor. Battery (NiMH / Li-ion) Table 5: Summary of Technical Costs Technical Costs Internal Costs ($) Power Electronics System (AC/DC Converter) Power Electronics System (DC/DC Converter) Assembly Labor Insulation / Packaging Miscellaneous Components 2.3.6 Battery (Li-ion and NIMH) 13 5,000 / 10,000 500 300 250 (25/hr * 10hrs) There are two assumptions associated with battery selection. First, the PHEV Escape achieves an efficiency of 4.0 miles per kWh when operating in electric-only 500 200
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