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means of detecting impurities and the principal tests for the most important poisons. His knowledge of pharmacy had to cover the preparation of extracts, infusions and tinctures, and the methods used in dispensing them; an understanding of weights and measures was also considered essential. 156 In addition, candidates had to produce testimonials showing that they had been ―apprenticed to or regularly educated by a vendor of drugs or dispenser of medicines.‖ 157 In contrast the apothecaries‘ assistants were not required to serve an apprenticeship. Although there are similarities to the assistant‘s examination, it is not possible to determine whether the knowledge of the Pharmacopoeia that they were required to have, covered the scope and depth of those sitting the ‗minor‘ examination; certainly, the assistants did not need a knowledge of poisons. The ‗minor‘ examination underwent a small change in 1850; but only in respect of the Latin content and the reading of prescriptions. 158 But in 1857, the syllabus underwent a considerable review. It may be summarised as comprising the Latin language, Pharmaceutical and General Chemistry, Botany, Materia Medica, the Chemistry of Poisons, and the Natural History of Drugs. A few additions were made to the previous syllabus: in botany a candidate was expected to be familiar with ―the structure and distinctive characters of the different organs of flowering plants and to recognise the medicinal plants in daily use.‖ In chemistry he needed to know how to 156 Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, series 1, 2, 8, (Feb. 1843) 481-482. 157 Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, series 1, 3, 7, (Jan. 1844) 339. 158 Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, series 1, 10, 1, (Jul. 1850) 11. 127
measure specific gravity and how to determine thermometrical equivalents. He also had to be able to calculate using vulgar and decimal fractions. 159 An indication of the standard expected of candidates may be gained by reference to question number six in the Materia Medica and Botany examination of 1859, which asked, ―What are the characters of Alexandrian, East Indian and Tinnivelly kinds of Senna? Mention their Botanical and Geographical sources, the substances commonly used to adulterate them, and the means by which such adulteration could be ascertained?‖ 160 This question could have appeared word for word in a final degree Pharmacognosy paper in the 1960s. Practical dispensing was introduced into the examination in 1861 and the candidate had to translate the prescription, weigh, measure and compound the medicine by an accepted method. He was to ―… write the directions in concise language as well as in a neat and distinct hand ….‖ He also had to be able ―… to spread plasters with dexterity and neatness.‖ 161 The apothecaries‘ assistant‘s examination did not change from that of 1843 until 1863, when the British Pharmacopoeia, replaced the London Pharmacopoeia as the standard reference book and was adopted as the reference book for the examination. 162 There were no further changes until 1871 when Pharmaceutical Chemistry was added to the list of subjects. 163 159 Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, series 1, 17, 2, (Aug. 1857) 117. 160 Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, series 2, 1, 5, (Nov. 1859) 257. 161 Pharmaceutical Journal and Transactions, series 2, 2, 9, (Mar. 1861) 442. 162 Society of Apothecaries Archive, Society of Apothecaries of London Candidates Regulations 1841- 1900. 163 Society of Apothecaries Archive, Society of Apothecaries of London Candidates Regulations 1841- 1900. 128
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The Rise and Fall of the Apothecari
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Acknowledgements I am grateful to t
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Abstract List of Contents Chapter 1
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Chapter 1 Introduction This thesis
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They were not a highly educated gro
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professions. This thesis, in terms
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that a medical degree should be pre
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Nonetheless he received the univers
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universities played their part.‖
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the theory they had learned, with p
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mainly from the poor and had been a
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elatively few deaths in small towns
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apprenticeship, which included ―w
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consulted both quacks and physician
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social background, university educa
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In order further to compare the var
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setting fractures and reducing disl
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physicians, surgeons and apothecari
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The surgeons were less educated tha
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Sunderland in 1841, agrees with thi
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8 times as many in the countryside.
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Apothecaries Act in 1815. 155 Digby
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Rose, at the suggestion of the Atto
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The physicians had insisted on amen
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practise. The licence obtained was
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of the Pharmaceutical Journal in 18
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determined that National Insurance
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employment. 205 However they were o
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daughter in 1878. She found the rem
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Gender Issues In the late 1850s, it
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girl to have to work. 236 As Reader
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anking. 247 The problem was exacerb
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opting for the better-paid jobs ava
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It was however possible to employ w
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only two books and six journal arti
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Society was also experiencing extra
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story. They were particularly impre
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cause and the subject had therefore
Page 77 and 78: neighbours might give a clue to the
Page 79 and 80: Laboratory. She tells how the Dispe
Page 81 and 82: dispenser in a troopship and in two
Page 83 and 84: John Fraser of 26, Robert Street, w
Page 85 and 86: change. Marland, for instance, poin
Page 87 and 88: est of the professional medical com
Page 89 and 90: assistant dispenser to dispenser. S
Page 91 and 92: Apothecaries‘ assistants in civil
Page 93 and 94: gives the medicines in accordance w
Page 95 and 96: have been because he wanted greater
Page 97 and 98: dispensers employed should be posse
Page 99 and 100: examination. 47 From 1846 the Socie
Page 101 and 102: obtain the certificate of an apothe
Page 103 and 104: The consolidation of the apothecari
Page 105 and 106: page 108. Copeman does not agree wi
Page 107 and 108: pharmacies until January 1913. 72 A
Page 109 and 110: Numbers 450 400 350 300 250 200 150
Page 111 and 112: and on 18 December 1879 he appeared
Page 113 and 114: management. 91 Their vision was for
Page 115 and 116: The recently opened Mechanics‘ In
Page 117 and 118: until 1856, the annual cost to the
Page 119 and 120: succeed. 119 For a number of years
Page 121 and 122: that, ―… it is his [Master‘s]
Page 123 and 124: Examination of the College of Prece
Page 125 and 126: From the outset, an understanding o
Page 127: examinations. 154 The ‗minor‘ e
Page 131 and 132: had been taught as a combined subje
Page 133 and 134: such as chloroform, methane, ethyle
Page 135 and 136: to the passing of the 1868 Act. 171
Page 137 and 138: Again, on the part of the Pharmaceu
Page 139 and 140: described above for 1896 and a more
Page 141 and 142: produced as a condition of entry to
Page 143 and 144: While the Society of Apothecaries d
Page 145 and 146: ―We know that the assistants' exa
Page 147 and 148: have seen no point in duplicating t
Page 149 and 150: sub-committee was set up by the Cou
Page 151 and 152: druggists. The chemists and druggis
Page 153 and 154: Chapter 3 The Rise of the Female Ap
Page 155 and 156: middle class, a term that was coine
Page 157 and 158: division of labour and it was impos
Page 159 and 160: even the wealthiest to overnight de
Page 161 and 162: Perkins records that middle class c
Page 163 and 164: policy of an occupation; they would
Page 165 and 166: Miss Frances Buss, also gave eviden
Page 167 and 168: Greek to prepare nineteen year old
Page 169 and 170: letters, points out that this was u
Page 171 and 172: Mildred Cable‘s father was a drap
Page 173 and 174: this respect, while those taking up
Page 175 and 176: that, ―… there was an excess of
Page 177 and 178: schools were female, they were main
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other newly emerging professions, w
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was so, even though older children
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allowed untrained midwives to conti
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contemporary written material to ma
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examination and thereby to obtain a
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Of those who passed, it has been po
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considered the minimum required to
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have been recorded as ‗Child‘ a
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family business, as in the case of
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Correll who passed the examination
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leaves one last group, the assistan
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dispensary run by Elizabeth Garrett
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customers; features that often disg
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Annie, would have saved his father
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support for their training and perh
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women had involved themselves in su
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Women Pharmacists. It is reported t
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Chapter 4 The Introduction and Amen
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The Apothecaries Act (1815) confirm
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Early Development of the Medical Pr
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effectively created the medical pro
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similarly protected. 17 A number of
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dispensing, however, he was satisfi
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The Pharmacy Profession and the Pro
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strain became too much. 40 For exam
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typical symptoms of strychnine pois
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and cocoa. 53 The Arsenic Act had n
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Medical Education and Registration.
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A Special General Meeting of the Ph
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e more difficult to steer through P
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Stage in the Lords, Earl Granville
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elated bodies, who might consider t
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that while it was easy to understan
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at the branch shops. This put the p
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the business of a chemist and drugg
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the business along those lines. 105
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establishments dare not make any re
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Companies Association Ltd to safegu
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‗Country Gentleman‘ concerning
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chemist and druggist or not. 136 Th
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Other issues also influenced the de
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commented on them. ‗Country Gentl
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chemicals, which were becoming esse
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examination. 163 This provision was
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Curiously this exploitation did not
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of medical prescriptions from the a
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with an insurance company, to pay f
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same time their private patients te
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exaggerated because scheme members
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etween the government and the frien
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Pharmacy Act (1908); all dispensing
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himself as ‗A Dispenser of Thirty
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decline. The apothecaries‘ assist
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them. In contrast, the members of t
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Chapter 5 The Decline of the Apothe
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occasions between 1909 and 1920, wa
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apothecary. 9 This view was also he
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will be thrown out of employment
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certificate should be increased fro
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He was also a Life Member of the Ro
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patients joining the scheme. Howeve
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longer duration and dealt with a gr
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the Privy Council. Mr Trayner and t
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to do so. 51 Mr Rowland went on to
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druggist, would be able to dispense
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their fitness to perform those duti
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The pharmacists had also seen the d
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the patients pure drugs, as it was
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member for the Universities of Edin
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matters essential to the Society‘
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say that they were very opposed to
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We should not, he thought, be ―bo
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future, but reluctant to relinquish
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to the National Insurance Act. Lloy
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As this handbill stated that apothe
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had been available to a greater or
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amifications of the Act which would
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accepted profession. 132 As we have
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in Parliament ever since 1908 to co
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negotiable condition. It had just b
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Act (1908) created an impasse that
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would be inoperative and had decide
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1916. However, it was recognised in
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have adopted the strategy of doing
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The Society of Apothecaries again h
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prescriptions dispensed by a person
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those who held a legal qualificatio
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development. They had parliamentary
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compounding. She went on to obtain
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edundancy. A search of The Times fr
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Chapter 6 Conclusions The apothecar
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Morant who was Permanent Secretary
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an understanding of their position
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training. Part of this assessment i
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shop proprietor operated pharmacies
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the government would have been boun
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Appendix 1 Appendices Schedules of
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emulsifying agents, and the best me
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e shown to him to their class and s
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volume; the hypothesis of Avagadro;
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To quantitatively determine the tot
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Candidates will be expected to have
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Appendix 3 Table 1: Maximum number
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Subject Margaret Gentle Father’s
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Father’s Occupation and Status -
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Appendix 5 Table 3: Father’s and
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Appendix 6 Substances included in t
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Acts of Parliament Apothecaries Act
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Society of Apothecaries’ Archive
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Box 10, E/4/4/1/2, Letter from 11 M
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Books and Journals Austin, J. Emma
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Secondary Sources Articles Anderson
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Dingwall, H., ‗―General Practic
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Loudon, I.,‗A Doctor‘s Cash Boo
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Watson, K.D., ‗Medical and Chemic
Page 409 and 410:
Cordery, S., British Friendly Socie
Page 411 and 412:
Keevil, J.J., Medicine and the Navy
Page 413 and 414:
Vincent, D., Literacy and Popular C
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