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this development. It made them into pioneers in breaking the bonds that tied young middle class women to their family homes. It demonstrated that young women, given a suitable education, were perfectly capable of working in the same capacity as a man in a scientifically based career. It provided a rewarding career for girls who had a scientific bent and the aptitude to benefit from a secondary education at a price, that in over 4000 cases, their fathers were able to afford. Furthermore, it was widely used as a stepping stone to a professional career in pharmacy. In addition the qualification created a body of people that provided the country‘s dispensing service for 70 years. In doing so, they bridged the gap between the time when the apothecaries abandoned pharmacy in favour of medicine, and the passing of the National Insurance Act, when dispensing was transferred to the chemists and druggists. 211
Chapter 4 The Introduction and Amendment of Related Legislation The period from 1800 to 1912 saw the introduction of a good deal of legislation intended to accomplish social change and to facilitate the establishment of the professions. This legislation had a fundamental influence on the core theme of this thesis: the rise and decline of the apothecaries‘ assistants. Although, as we shall see, some of these influences remained dormant until 1911 when they combined to deal a severe blow to these dispensers of medicine. The state of public health was generally a concern and was addressed by a number of Public Health Acts. 1 Lloyd George had long believed that social reform was necessary and that it was the state‘s responsibility to act. He had campaigned for change throughout his political career and had persuaded the rich that such changes were in their interests. 2 As Chancellor of the Exchequer he succeeded in guiding the National Insurance Act (1911) through Parliament. Another aspect of public health that was engaging both the government and the public was that of accidental and criminal poisoning, particularly as it related to the widespread use of 1 Berridge, „Health and Medicine‟ in Thompson, (ed.) The Cambridge Social History of Britain, pp. 193- 194. 2 J. Grigg, Lloyd George. [2], The People’s Champion, 1902-1911 (London, 1978), p. 313. Further information about Lloyd George and the National Insurance Act (1911) may be found in B. Gilbert, The Evolution of National Insurance in Great Britain: the origins of the welfare state (London, 1966) and W. Braithwaite in H. Bunbury, (ed.) Lloyd George's ambulance wagon: being the memoirs of William J. Braithwaite, 1911-1912 (London, 1957) and M. Pugh, Lloyd George (London and New York, 1988) and B. Gilbert, David Lloyd George: a political life the architect of change 1863-1912 (London, 1987) and P. Rowland, Lloyd George (London, 1975). 212
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The Rise and Fall of the Apothecari
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Acknowledgements I am grateful to t
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Abstract List of Contents Chapter 1
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Chapter 1 Introduction This thesis
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They were not a highly educated gro
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professions. This thesis, in terms
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that a medical degree should be pre
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Nonetheless he received the univers
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universities played their part.‖
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the theory they had learned, with p
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mainly from the poor and had been a
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elatively few deaths in small towns
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apprenticeship, which included ―w
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consulted both quacks and physician
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social background, university educa
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In order further to compare the var
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setting fractures and reducing disl
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physicians, surgeons and apothecari
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The surgeons were less educated tha
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Sunderland in 1841, agrees with thi
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8 times as many in the countryside.
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Apothecaries Act in 1815. 155 Digby
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Rose, at the suggestion of the Atto
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The physicians had insisted on amen
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practise. The licence obtained was
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of the Pharmaceutical Journal in 18
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determined that National Insurance
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employment. 205 However they were o
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daughter in 1878. She found the rem
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Gender Issues In the late 1850s, it
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girl to have to work. 236 As Reader
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anking. 247 The problem was exacerb
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opting for the better-paid jobs ava
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It was however possible to employ w
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only two books and six journal arti
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Society was also experiencing extra
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story. They were particularly impre
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cause and the subject had therefore
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neighbours might give a clue to the
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Laboratory. She tells how the Dispe
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dispenser in a troopship and in two
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John Fraser of 26, Robert Street, w
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change. Marland, for instance, poin
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est of the professional medical com
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assistant dispenser to dispenser. S
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Apothecaries‘ assistants in civil
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gives the medicines in accordance w
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have been because he wanted greater
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dispensers employed should be posse
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examination. 47 From 1846 the Socie
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obtain the certificate of an apothe
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The consolidation of the apothecari
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page 108. Copeman does not agree wi
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pharmacies until January 1913. 72 A
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Numbers 450 400 350 300 250 200 150
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and on 18 December 1879 he appeared
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management. 91 Their vision was for
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The recently opened Mechanics‘ In
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until 1856, the annual cost to the
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succeed. 119 For a number of years
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that, ―… it is his [Master‘s]
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Examination of the College of Prece
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From the outset, an understanding o
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examinations. 154 The ‗minor‘ e
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measure specific gravity and how to
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had been taught as a combined subje
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such as chloroform, methane, ethyle
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to the passing of the 1868 Act. 171
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Again, on the part of the Pharmaceu
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described above for 1896 and a more
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produced as a condition of entry to
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While the Society of Apothecaries d
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―We know that the assistants' exa
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have seen no point in duplicating t
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sub-committee was set up by the Cou
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druggists. The chemists and druggis
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Chapter 3 The Rise of the Female Ap
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middle class, a term that was coine
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division of labour and it was impos
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even the wealthiest to overnight de
Page 161 and 162: Perkins records that middle class c
Page 163 and 164: policy of an occupation; they would
Page 165 and 166: Miss Frances Buss, also gave eviden
Page 167 and 168: Greek to prepare nineteen year old
Page 169 and 170: letters, points out that this was u
Page 171 and 172: Mildred Cable‘s father was a drap
Page 173 and 174: this respect, while those taking up
Page 175 and 176: that, ―… there was an excess of
Page 177 and 178: schools were female, they were main
Page 179 and 180: other newly emerging professions, w
Page 181 and 182: was so, even though older children
Page 183 and 184: allowed untrained midwives to conti
Page 185 and 186: contemporary written material to ma
Page 187 and 188: examination and thereby to obtain a
Page 189 and 190: Of those who passed, it has been po
Page 191 and 192: considered the minimum required to
Page 193 and 194: have been recorded as ‗Child‘ a
Page 195 and 196: family business, as in the case of
Page 197 and 198: Correll who passed the examination
Page 199 and 200: leaves one last group, the assistan
Page 201 and 202: dispensary run by Elizabeth Garrett
Page 203 and 204: customers; features that often disg
Page 205 and 206: Annie, would have saved his father
Page 207 and 208: support for their training and perh
Page 209 and 210: women had involved themselves in su
Page 211: Women Pharmacists. It is reported t
Page 215 and 216: The Apothecaries Act (1815) confirm
Page 217 and 218: Early Development of the Medical Pr
Page 219 and 220: effectively created the medical pro
Page 221 and 222: similarly protected. 17 A number of
Page 223 and 224: dispensing, however, he was satisfi
Page 225 and 226: The Pharmacy Profession and the Pro
Page 227 and 228: strain became too much. 40 For exam
Page 229 and 230: typical symptoms of strychnine pois
Page 231 and 232: and cocoa. 53 The Arsenic Act had n
Page 233 and 234: Medical Education and Registration.
Page 235 and 236: A Special General Meeting of the Ph
Page 237 and 238: e more difficult to steer through P
Page 239 and 240: Stage in the Lords, Earl Granville
Page 241 and 242: elated bodies, who might consider t
Page 243 and 244: that while it was easy to understan
Page 245 and 246: at the branch shops. This put the p
Page 247 and 248: the business of a chemist and drugg
Page 249 and 250: the business along those lines. 105
Page 251 and 252: establishments dare not make any re
Page 253 and 254: Companies Association Ltd to safegu
Page 255 and 256: ‗Country Gentleman‘ concerning
Page 257 and 258: chemist and druggist or not. 136 Th
Page 259 and 260: Other issues also influenced the de
Page 261 and 262: commented on them. ‗Country Gentl
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chemicals, which were becoming esse
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examination. 163 This provision was
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Curiously this exploitation did not
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of medical prescriptions from the a
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with an insurance company, to pay f
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same time their private patients te
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exaggerated because scheme members
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etween the government and the frien
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Pharmacy Act (1908); all dispensing
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himself as ‗A Dispenser of Thirty
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decline. The apothecaries‘ assist
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them. In contrast, the members of t
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Chapter 5 The Decline of the Apothe
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occasions between 1909 and 1920, wa
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apothecary. 9 This view was also he
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will be thrown out of employment
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certificate should be increased fro
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He was also a Life Member of the Ro
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patients joining the scheme. Howeve
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longer duration and dealt with a gr
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the Privy Council. Mr Trayner and t
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to do so. 51 Mr Rowland went on to
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druggist, would be able to dispense
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their fitness to perform those duti
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The pharmacists had also seen the d
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the patients pure drugs, as it was
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member for the Universities of Edin
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matters essential to the Society‘
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say that they were very opposed to
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We should not, he thought, be ―bo
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future, but reluctant to relinquish
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to the National Insurance Act. Lloy
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As this handbill stated that apothe
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had been available to a greater or
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amifications of the Act which would
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accepted profession. 132 As we have
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in Parliament ever since 1908 to co
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negotiable condition. It had just b
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Act (1908) created an impasse that
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would be inoperative and had decide
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1916. However, it was recognised in
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have adopted the strategy of doing
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The Society of Apothecaries again h
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prescriptions dispensed by a person
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those who held a legal qualificatio
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development. They had parliamentary
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compounding. She went on to obtain
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edundancy. A search of The Times fr
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Chapter 6 Conclusions The apothecar
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Morant who was Permanent Secretary
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an understanding of their position
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training. Part of this assessment i
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shop proprietor operated pharmacies
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the government would have been boun
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Appendix 1 Appendices Schedules of
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emulsifying agents, and the best me
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e shown to him to their class and s
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volume; the hypothesis of Avagadro;
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To quantitatively determine the tot
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Candidates will be expected to have
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Appendix 3 Table 1: Maximum number
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Subject Margaret Gentle Father’s
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Father’s Occupation and Status -
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Appendix 5 Table 3: Father’s and
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Appendix 6 Substances included in t
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Acts of Parliament Apothecaries Act
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Society of Apothecaries’ Archive
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Box 10, E/4/4/1/2, Letter from 11 M
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Books and Journals Austin, J. Emma
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Secondary Sources Articles Anderson
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Dingwall, H., ‗―General Practic
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Loudon, I.,‗A Doctor‘s Cash Boo
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Watson, K.D., ‗Medical and Chemic
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Cordery, S., British Friendly Socie
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Keevil, J.J., Medicine and the Navy
Page 413 and 414:
Vincent, D., Literacy and Popular C
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