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Newcomer, M., ‗English Local Government Finance Under the Local Government Act of 1929‘, Political Science Quarterly, 51, 4, (Dec. 1936) 538- 568. Nuttall, A., ‗―Because of Poverty brought into Hoispital: …‖ A Casenote- Based Analysis of the Changing Role of the Edinburgh Royal Maternity Hospital, 1850-1912‘, Social History of Medicine, 20, 2, (2007) 263-280. Ogborn, M., ‗Local Power and State Regulation in Nineteenth Century Britain‘, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, 17, 2, (1992) 215-226. Porter, I.A., ‗Thomas Trotter, M.D., Naval Physician, Medical History, 7, 2, (1963) 154-164. Porter, R., Lay Medical Knowledge in the Eighteenth Century: the evidence of the Gentleman‘s Magazine‘, Medical History, 29, (1985) 138-168. Roberts, M.J.D., ‗The Politics of Professionalization: MPs, Medical Men, and the 1858 Medical Act‘, Medical History, 53, (2009) 37-56. Schlumbohm, J., ‗―The Pregnant Women are here for the Sake of the Teaching Institution‖: The Lying-In Hospital of Göttingen University, 1751 to c. 1830‘, Social History of Medicine, 14, 1, (2001) 59-78. Seligman, S., ‗The Royal Maternity Charity: the first hundred years‘, Medical History, 24, (1980) 403-418. Smith, A., ‗Weighed in the balance? The Corporation of Apothecaries in Bordeaux, 1690 – 1790‘, Social History of Medicine, 16, 1, (2003) 17-37. Snell, E., ‗The Local Government Act, 1929, from a medical point of view‘, Supplement to the British Medical Journal, 2, 3593, (16 Nov. 1929) 221-223. Sturgess, R., Quackery: a barely believable history‘, Pharmaceutical Journal, 275, 7381, (24-31 Dec. 2005) 795-798. Thomas, S.S., ‗Midwifery and Society in Restoration York‘, Social History of Medicine, 16, 1, (2003) 1-16. Traulsen, J., P. Bissell and L. Haugbølle, ‗Feminist Theory and Pharmacy Practice‘, International Journal of Pharmacy Practice, 11, (2003) 55-68. Tuchman, A.M., ‗―The True Assistant to the Obstetrician‖: State Regulation and Legal Protection of Midwives in Nineteenth-Century Prussia‘, Social History of Medicine, 18, 1, (2005) 23-38. 405
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The Rise and Fall of the Apothecari
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Acknowledgements I am grateful to t
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Abstract List of Contents Chapter 1
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Chapter 1 Introduction This thesis
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They were not a highly educated gro
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professions. This thesis, in terms
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that a medical degree should be pre
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Nonetheless he received the univers
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universities played their part.‖
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the theory they had learned, with p
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mainly from the poor and had been a
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elatively few deaths in small towns
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apprenticeship, which included ―w
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consulted both quacks and physician
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social background, university educa
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In order further to compare the var
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setting fractures and reducing disl
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physicians, surgeons and apothecari
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The surgeons were less educated tha
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Sunderland in 1841, agrees with thi
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8 times as many in the countryside.
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Apothecaries Act in 1815. 155 Digby
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Rose, at the suggestion of the Atto
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The physicians had insisted on amen
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practise. The licence obtained was
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of the Pharmaceutical Journal in 18
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determined that National Insurance
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employment. 205 However they were o
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daughter in 1878. She found the rem
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Gender Issues In the late 1850s, it
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girl to have to work. 236 As Reader
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anking. 247 The problem was exacerb
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opting for the better-paid jobs ava
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It was however possible to employ w
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only two books and six journal arti
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Society was also experiencing extra
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story. They were particularly impre
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cause and the subject had therefore
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neighbours might give a clue to the
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Laboratory. She tells how the Dispe
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dispenser in a troopship and in two
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John Fraser of 26, Robert Street, w
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change. Marland, for instance, poin
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est of the professional medical com
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assistant dispenser to dispenser. S
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Apothecaries‘ assistants in civil
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gives the medicines in accordance w
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have been because he wanted greater
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dispensers employed should be posse
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examination. 47 From 1846 the Socie
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obtain the certificate of an apothe
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The consolidation of the apothecari
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page 108. Copeman does not agree wi
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pharmacies until January 1913. 72 A
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Numbers 450 400 350 300 250 200 150
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and on 18 December 1879 he appeared
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management. 91 Their vision was for
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The recently opened Mechanics‘ In
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until 1856, the annual cost to the
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succeed. 119 For a number of years
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that, ―… it is his [Master‘s]
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Examination of the College of Prece
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From the outset, an understanding o
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examinations. 154 The ‗minor‘ e
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measure specific gravity and how to
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had been taught as a combined subje
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such as chloroform, methane, ethyle
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to the passing of the 1868 Act. 171
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Again, on the part of the Pharmaceu
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described above for 1896 and a more
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produced as a condition of entry to
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While the Society of Apothecaries d
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―We know that the assistants' exa
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have seen no point in duplicating t
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sub-committee was set up by the Cou
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druggists. The chemists and druggis
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Chapter 3 The Rise of the Female Ap
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middle class, a term that was coine
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division of labour and it was impos
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even the wealthiest to overnight de
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Perkins records that middle class c
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policy of an occupation; they would
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Miss Frances Buss, also gave eviden
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Greek to prepare nineteen year old
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letters, points out that this was u
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Mildred Cable‘s father was a drap
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this respect, while those taking up
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that, ―… there was an excess of
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schools were female, they were main
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other newly emerging professions, w
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was so, even though older children
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allowed untrained midwives to conti
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contemporary written material to ma
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examination and thereby to obtain a
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Of those who passed, it has been po
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considered the minimum required to
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have been recorded as ‗Child‘ a
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family business, as in the case of
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Correll who passed the examination
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leaves one last group, the assistan
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dispensary run by Elizabeth Garrett
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customers; features that often disg
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Annie, would have saved his father
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support for their training and perh
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women had involved themselves in su
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Women Pharmacists. It is reported t
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Chapter 4 The Introduction and Amen
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The Apothecaries Act (1815) confirm
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Early Development of the Medical Pr
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effectively created the medical pro
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similarly protected. 17 A number of
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dispensing, however, he was satisfi
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The Pharmacy Profession and the Pro
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strain became too much. 40 For exam
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typical symptoms of strychnine pois
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and cocoa. 53 The Arsenic Act had n
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Medical Education and Registration.
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A Special General Meeting of the Ph
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e more difficult to steer through P
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Stage in the Lords, Earl Granville
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elated bodies, who might consider t
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that while it was easy to understan
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at the branch shops. This put the p
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the business of a chemist and drugg
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the business along those lines. 105
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establishments dare not make any re
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Companies Association Ltd to safegu
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‗Country Gentleman‘ concerning
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chemist and druggist or not. 136 Th
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Other issues also influenced the de
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commented on them. ‗Country Gentl
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chemicals, which were becoming esse
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examination. 163 This provision was
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Curiously this exploitation did not
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of medical prescriptions from the a
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with an insurance company, to pay f
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same time their private patients te
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exaggerated because scheme members
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etween the government and the frien
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Pharmacy Act (1908); all dispensing
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himself as ‗A Dispenser of Thirty
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decline. The apothecaries‘ assist
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them. In contrast, the members of t
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Chapter 5 The Decline of the Apothe
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occasions between 1909 and 1920, wa
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apothecary. 9 This view was also he
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will be thrown out of employment
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certificate should be increased fro
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He was also a Life Member of the Ro
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patients joining the scheme. Howeve
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longer duration and dealt with a gr
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the Privy Council. Mr Trayner and t
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to do so. 51 Mr Rowland went on to
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druggist, would be able to dispense
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their fitness to perform those duti
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The pharmacists had also seen the d
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the patients pure drugs, as it was
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member for the Universities of Edin
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matters essential to the Society‘
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say that they were very opposed to
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We should not, he thought, be ―bo
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future, but reluctant to relinquish
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to the National Insurance Act. Lloy
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As this handbill stated that apothe
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had been available to a greater or
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amifications of the Act which would
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accepted profession. 132 As we have
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in Parliament ever since 1908 to co
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negotiable condition. It had just b
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Act (1908) created an impasse that
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would be inoperative and had decide
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1916. However, it was recognised in
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have adopted the strategy of doing
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The Society of Apothecaries again h
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prescriptions dispensed by a person
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those who held a legal qualificatio
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development. They had parliamentary
Page 355 and 356: compounding. She went on to obtain
Page 357 and 358: edundancy. A search of The Times fr
Page 359 and 360: Chapter 6 Conclusions The apothecar
Page 361 and 362: Morant who was Permanent Secretary
Page 363 and 364: an understanding of their position
Page 365 and 366: training. Part of this assessment i
Page 367 and 368: shop proprietor operated pharmacies
Page 369 and 370: the government would have been boun
Page 371 and 372: Appendix 1 Appendices Schedules of
Page 373 and 374: emulsifying agents, and the best me
Page 375 and 376: e shown to him to their class and s
Page 377 and 378: volume; the hypothesis of Avagadro;
Page 379 and 380: To quantitatively determine the tot
Page 381 and 382: Candidates will be expected to have
Page 383 and 384: Appendix 3 Table 1: Maximum number
Page 385 and 386: Subject Margaret Gentle Father’s
Page 387 and 388: Father’s Occupation and Status -
Page 389 and 390: Appendix 5 Table 3: Father’s and
Page 391 and 392: Appendix 6 Substances included in t
Page 393 and 394: Acts of Parliament Apothecaries Act
Page 395 and 396: Society of Apothecaries’ Archive
Page 397 and 398: Box 10, E/4/4/1/2, Letter from 11 M
Page 399 and 400: Books and Journals Austin, J. Emma
Page 401 and 402: Secondary Sources Articles Anderson
Page 403 and 404: Dingwall, H., ‗―General Practic
Page 405: Loudon, I.,‗A Doctor‘s Cash Boo
Page 409 and 410: Cordery, S., British Friendly Socie
Page 411 and 412: Keevil, J.J., Medicine and the Navy
Page 413 and 414: Vincent, D., Literacy and Popular C
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