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Brown, P.S., ‗The Vicissitudes of Herbalism in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Britain‘, Medical History, 29, (1985) 71-92. Burstyn, J.N., ‗Education and Sex: the medical case against higher education for women in England, 1870-1900‘, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 117, 2, (1973) 79-89. Clement, M., ‗Physical Puritanism and Religious Dissent: The Case of John Young (1820-1904), Sunderland Chemist and Druggist and Methodist Lay Preacher‘, Social History of Medicine, 11, 2, (1998) 197-212. Coley, N., ‗Alfred Swaine Taylor, MD, FRS (1806-1880) Forensic Toxicologist‘, Medical History, 35, (1991) 409-427. Cook, H., ‗Practical Medicine and the British Armed Forces after the ―Glorious Revolution‖‘, Medical History, 34, (1990) 1-26. Cope, Z., ‗The Influence of the Free Dispensaries upon Medical Education in Britain‘, Medical History, 13, 1, (1969) 29-36. Cowen, D.L., ‗Notes on Hospital Pharmacy in the Royal Navy in the Eighteenth Century‘, Bulletin of American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, 13, (Nov.-Dec. 1956) 568–574. Corfield, P.J., ‗From Poison Peddlers to Civic Worthies: the reputation of the Apothecaries in Georgian England‘, Social History of Medicine, 22, 1, (2009) 1-21. Crawford, C., ‗Patients Rights and the Law of Contract in Eighteenth- Century England‘, Social History of Medicine, 13, 3, (2000) 381-410. Crellin, J.K., ‗Apothecaries, Dispensers, Students and Nineteenth Century Pharmacy at St Georges Hospital, London‘, Medical History, 6, 2, (1962) 131-145. Crellin, J.K., ‗Eighteenth Century Pharmacy at St George‘s Hospital, London‘, Medical History, 5, 4, (1961) 327-340. Crellin, J.K., ‗Pharmaceutical History and its Sources in the Wellcome Collections: 1. The Growth of Professionalism in Nineteenth Century British Pharmacy‘, Medical History, 11, (1967) 215-227. Croxson, B., ‗The Foundation and Evolution of the Middlesex Hospital‘s Lying-In Service, 1745-86‘, Social History of Medicine, 14, 1, (2001) 27-57. De Bellaigue, C., ‗The Development of Teaching as a Profession for Women before 1870‘, The Historical Journal, 44, 4, (2001) 963-988. 401
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Page 1 and 2:
The Rise and Fall of the Apothecari
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Acknowledgements I am grateful to t
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Abstract List of Contents Chapter 1
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Chapter 1 Introduction This thesis
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They were not a highly educated gro
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professions. This thesis, in terms
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that a medical degree should be pre
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Nonetheless he received the univers
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universities played their part.‖
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the theory they had learned, with p
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mainly from the poor and had been a
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elatively few deaths in small towns
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apprenticeship, which included ―w
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consulted both quacks and physician
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social background, university educa
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In order further to compare the var
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setting fractures and reducing disl
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physicians, surgeons and apothecari
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The surgeons were less educated tha
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Sunderland in 1841, agrees with thi
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8 times as many in the countryside.
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Apothecaries Act in 1815. 155 Digby
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Rose, at the suggestion of the Atto
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The physicians had insisted on amen
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practise. The licence obtained was
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of the Pharmaceutical Journal in 18
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determined that National Insurance
Page 55 and 56:
employment. 205 However they were o
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daughter in 1878. She found the rem
Page 59 and 60:
Gender Issues In the late 1850s, it
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girl to have to work. 236 As Reader
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anking. 247 The problem was exacerb
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opting for the better-paid jobs ava
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It was however possible to employ w
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only two books and six journal arti
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Society was also experiencing extra
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story. They were particularly impre
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cause and the subject had therefore
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neighbours might give a clue to the
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Laboratory. She tells how the Dispe
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dispenser in a troopship and in two
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John Fraser of 26, Robert Street, w
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change. Marland, for instance, poin
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est of the professional medical com
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assistant dispenser to dispenser. S
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Apothecaries‘ assistants in civil
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gives the medicines in accordance w
Page 95 and 96:
have been because he wanted greater
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dispensers employed should be posse
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examination. 47 From 1846 the Socie
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obtain the certificate of an apothe
Page 103 and 104:
The consolidation of the apothecari
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page 108. Copeman does not agree wi
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pharmacies until January 1913. 72 A
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Numbers 450 400 350 300 250 200 150
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and on 18 December 1879 he appeared
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management. 91 Their vision was for
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The recently opened Mechanics‘ In
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until 1856, the annual cost to the
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succeed. 119 For a number of years
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that, ―… it is his [Master‘s]
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Examination of the College of Prece
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From the outset, an understanding o
Page 127 and 128:
examinations. 154 The ‗minor‘ e
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measure specific gravity and how to
Page 131 and 132:
had been taught as a combined subje
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such as chloroform, methane, ethyle
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to the passing of the 1868 Act. 171
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Again, on the part of the Pharmaceu
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described above for 1896 and a more
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produced as a condition of entry to
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While the Society of Apothecaries d
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―We know that the assistants' exa
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have seen no point in duplicating t
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sub-committee was set up by the Cou
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druggists. The chemists and druggis
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Chapter 3 The Rise of the Female Ap
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middle class, a term that was coine
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division of labour and it was impos
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even the wealthiest to overnight de
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Perkins records that middle class c
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policy of an occupation; they would
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Miss Frances Buss, also gave eviden
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Greek to prepare nineteen year old
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letters, points out that this was u
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Mildred Cable‘s father was a drap
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this respect, while those taking up
Page 175 and 176:
that, ―… there was an excess of
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schools were female, they were main
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other newly emerging professions, w
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was so, even though older children
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allowed untrained midwives to conti
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contemporary written material to ma
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examination and thereby to obtain a
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Of those who passed, it has been po
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considered the minimum required to
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have been recorded as ‗Child‘ a
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family business, as in the case of
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Correll who passed the examination
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leaves one last group, the assistan
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dispensary run by Elizabeth Garrett
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customers; features that often disg
Page 205 and 206:
Annie, would have saved his father
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support for their training and perh
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women had involved themselves in su
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Women Pharmacists. It is reported t
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Chapter 4 The Introduction and Amen
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The Apothecaries Act (1815) confirm
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Early Development of the Medical Pr
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effectively created the medical pro
Page 221 and 222:
similarly protected. 17 A number of
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dispensing, however, he was satisfi
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The Pharmacy Profession and the Pro
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strain became too much. 40 For exam
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typical symptoms of strychnine pois
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and cocoa. 53 The Arsenic Act had n
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Medical Education and Registration.
Page 235 and 236:
A Special General Meeting of the Ph
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e more difficult to steer through P
Page 239 and 240:
Stage in the Lords, Earl Granville
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elated bodies, who might consider t
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that while it was easy to understan
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at the branch shops. This put the p
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the business of a chemist and drugg
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the business along those lines. 105
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establishments dare not make any re
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Companies Association Ltd to safegu
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‗Country Gentleman‘ concerning
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chemist and druggist or not. 136 Th
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Other issues also influenced the de
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commented on them. ‗Country Gentl
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chemicals, which were becoming esse
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examination. 163 This provision was
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Curiously this exploitation did not
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of medical prescriptions from the a
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with an insurance company, to pay f
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same time their private patients te
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exaggerated because scheme members
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etween the government and the frien
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Pharmacy Act (1908); all dispensing
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himself as ‗A Dispenser of Thirty
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decline. The apothecaries‘ assist
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them. In contrast, the members of t
Page 287 and 288:
Chapter 5 The Decline of the Apothe
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occasions between 1909 and 1920, wa
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apothecary. 9 This view was also he
Page 293 and 294:
will be thrown out of employment
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certificate should be increased fro
Page 297 and 298:
He was also a Life Member of the Ro
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patients joining the scheme. Howeve
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longer duration and dealt with a gr
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the Privy Council. Mr Trayner and t
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to do so. 51 Mr Rowland went on to
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druggist, would be able to dispense
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their fitness to perform those duti
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The pharmacists had also seen the d
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the patients pure drugs, as it was
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member for the Universities of Edin
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matters essential to the Society‘
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say that they were very opposed to
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We should not, he thought, be ―bo
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future, but reluctant to relinquish
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to the National Insurance Act. Lloy
Page 327 and 328:
As this handbill stated that apothe
Page 329 and 330:
had been available to a greater or
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amifications of the Act which would
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accepted profession. 132 As we have
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in Parliament ever since 1908 to co
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negotiable condition. It had just b
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Act (1908) created an impasse that
Page 341 and 342:
would be inoperative and had decide
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1916. However, it was recognised in
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have adopted the strategy of doing
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The Society of Apothecaries again h
Page 349 and 350:
prescriptions dispensed by a person
Page 351 and 352: those who held a legal qualificatio
Page 353 and 354: development. They had parliamentary
Page 355 and 356: compounding. She went on to obtain
Page 357 and 358: edundancy. A search of The Times fr
Page 359 and 360: Chapter 6 Conclusions The apothecar
Page 361 and 362: Morant who was Permanent Secretary
Page 363 and 364: an understanding of their position
Page 365 and 366: training. Part of this assessment i
Page 367 and 368: shop proprietor operated pharmacies
Page 369 and 370: the government would have been boun
Page 371 and 372: Appendix 1 Appendices Schedules of
Page 373 and 374: emulsifying agents, and the best me
Page 375 and 376: e shown to him to their class and s
Page 377 and 378: volume; the hypothesis of Avagadro;
Page 379 and 380: To quantitatively determine the tot
Page 381 and 382: Candidates will be expected to have
Page 383 and 384: Appendix 3 Table 1: Maximum number
Page 385 and 386: Subject Margaret Gentle Father’s
Page 387 and 388: Father’s Occupation and Status -
Page 389 and 390: Appendix 5 Table 3: Father’s and
Page 391 and 392: Appendix 6 Substances included in t
Page 393 and 394: Acts of Parliament Apothecaries Act
Page 395 and 396: Society of Apothecaries’ Archive
Page 397 and 398: Box 10, E/4/4/1/2, Letter from 11 M
Page 399 and 400: Books and Journals Austin, J. Emma
Page 401: Secondary Sources Articles Anderson
Page 405 and 406: Loudon, I.,‗A Doctor‘s Cash Boo
Page 407 and 408: Watson, K.D., ‗Medical and Chemic
Page 409 and 410: Cordery, S., British Friendly Socie
Page 411 and 412: Keevil, J.J., Medicine and the Navy
Page 413 and 414: Vincent, D., Literacy and Popular C
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