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doctor and his patient; a situation that was considered almost unethical by the medical profession. But as the doctor issued certificates that resulted in payments by the friendly societies, the societies wanted control of the relationship to guard against malingering. Lloyd George‘s problem was that the members of these Societies came largely from the better paid skilled workers, 178 leaving about 39,000,000 people in families where the income was less than £160 per year. 179 They could not afford to contribute to health insurance or were not prepared to do so and the government‘s view was that only a compulsory scheme would solve this problem. 180 At first sight, this figure of 39 million ‗poor‘ people seems high. This is particularly so since L. Money also claims that there were an additional 1.4 million ‗rich‘ people and 4.1 million ‗comfortable‘ people in the United Kingdom in 1908 and 1909, to give a total of 44.5 million. 181 But the 1911 censuses for England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland support this claim by reporting a total of 45,305,229 for the British Isles. 182 In addition to the friendly societies, the insurance companies also had an interest in death benefits. Many people, often from among those who could not afford to join a friendly society, would take out a Whole Life Policy 178 Grigg, Lloyd George, p. 316. For further information about the Friendly Societies see P. Gosden, The Friendly Societies in England 1815-1875 (reprint, Aldershot, [1961] 1993) and S. Cordery, British Friendly Societies 1750-1914 (Basingstoke, 2003) and D. Neave, East Riding Friendly Societies (Beverley, 1988). 179 th L. Money, Riches and Poverty (London, 1911, 10 ed.), p. 47 quoted in Gilbert, The Evolution of National Insurance in Great Britain, p. 303, note 23. 180 Official Report, House of Commons Debates, Series 5, IV, (April 29, 1909), cols. 485-7 quoted in Gilbert, The Evolution of National Insurance in Great Britain, p. 301, note 19. 181 Money, Riches and Poverty, p. 47 quoted in Gilbert, The Evolution of National Insurance in Great Britain, p. 303, note 23. 182 Preliminary Report, Scotland, 1911, p. iii and Summary Tables, England and Wales, 1911, p. 2 and Preliminary Report, Ireland, 1911, p. 13 in Histpop Online Historical population reports accessed 1 Feb. 2010. 269
with an insurance company, to pay for a decent burial. The insurance companies were naturally opposed to government proposals to provide a death benefit as part of a national insurance scheme, as that was a significant proportion of their business. The 12 largest companies collected premiums amounting to £20,000,000 per year and employed 70,000 salesmen for the purpose. The salesmen were paid 43 per cent of the premium and only 37 per cent was paid out as benefits. This poor return to the policyholder had an additional disadvantage, for when a man became sick, off work and unpaid, it was likely that he would not be able to keep up the premiums. The policy would then lapse and all the money he had paid in previously would be lost. Lloyd George strongly objected to this mistreatment of the poor and had in mind a scheme whose administration would take up only 10 per cent of the premiums. In short, his scheme would provide better benefits – including a widow‘s benefit – from smaller premiums. However, any attempt to take the death benefit business from the insurance companies would result in the real possibility of 70,000 salesmen adversely influencing their customers against the government, during their weekly visits. This was a risk Lloyd George could not take, as the government had a very small majority at the time. The value of the agents‘ books was about £20,000,000 to £30,000,000 and the option of buying them out was also impossible. 183 This was only one of the problems he faced. Apart from the insurance companies, there were other parties involved, each with its own demands. 183 Gilbert, The Evolution of National Insurance in Great Britain, p. 320. 270
Page 1 and 2:
The Rise and Fall of the Apothecari
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Acknowledgements I am grateful to t
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Abstract List of Contents Chapter 1
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Chapter 1 Introduction This thesis
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They were not a highly educated gro
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professions. This thesis, in terms
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that a medical degree should be pre
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Nonetheless he received the univers
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universities played their part.‖
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the theory they had learned, with p
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mainly from the poor and had been a
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elatively few deaths in small towns
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apprenticeship, which included ―w
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consulted both quacks and physician
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social background, university educa
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In order further to compare the var
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setting fractures and reducing disl
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physicians, surgeons and apothecari
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The surgeons were less educated tha
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Sunderland in 1841, agrees with thi
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8 times as many in the countryside.
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Apothecaries Act in 1815. 155 Digby
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Rose, at the suggestion of the Atto
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The physicians had insisted on amen
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practise. The licence obtained was
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of the Pharmaceutical Journal in 18
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determined that National Insurance
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employment. 205 However they were o
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daughter in 1878. She found the rem
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Gender Issues In the late 1850s, it
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girl to have to work. 236 As Reader
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anking. 247 The problem was exacerb
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opting for the better-paid jobs ava
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It was however possible to employ w
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only two books and six journal arti
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Society was also experiencing extra
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story. They were particularly impre
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cause and the subject had therefore
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neighbours might give a clue to the
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Laboratory. She tells how the Dispe
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dispenser in a troopship and in two
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John Fraser of 26, Robert Street, w
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change. Marland, for instance, poin
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est of the professional medical com
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assistant dispenser to dispenser. S
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Apothecaries‘ assistants in civil
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gives the medicines in accordance w
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have been because he wanted greater
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dispensers employed should be posse
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examination. 47 From 1846 the Socie
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obtain the certificate of an apothe
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The consolidation of the apothecari
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page 108. Copeman does not agree wi
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pharmacies until January 1913. 72 A
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Numbers 450 400 350 300 250 200 150
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and on 18 December 1879 he appeared
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management. 91 Their vision was for
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The recently opened Mechanics‘ In
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until 1856, the annual cost to the
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succeed. 119 For a number of years
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that, ―… it is his [Master‘s]
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Examination of the College of Prece
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From the outset, an understanding o
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examinations. 154 The ‗minor‘ e
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measure specific gravity and how to
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had been taught as a combined subje
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such as chloroform, methane, ethyle
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to the passing of the 1868 Act. 171
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Again, on the part of the Pharmaceu
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described above for 1896 and a more
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produced as a condition of entry to
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While the Society of Apothecaries d
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―We know that the assistants' exa
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have seen no point in duplicating t
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sub-committee was set up by the Cou
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druggists. The chemists and druggis
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Chapter 3 The Rise of the Female Ap
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middle class, a term that was coine
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division of labour and it was impos
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even the wealthiest to overnight de
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Perkins records that middle class c
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policy of an occupation; they would
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Miss Frances Buss, also gave eviden
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Greek to prepare nineteen year old
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letters, points out that this was u
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Mildred Cable‘s father was a drap
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this respect, while those taking up
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that, ―… there was an excess of
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schools were female, they were main
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other newly emerging professions, w
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was so, even though older children
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allowed untrained midwives to conti
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contemporary written material to ma
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examination and thereby to obtain a
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Of those who passed, it has been po
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considered the minimum required to
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have been recorded as ‗Child‘ a
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family business, as in the case of
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Correll who passed the examination
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leaves one last group, the assistan
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dispensary run by Elizabeth Garrett
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customers; features that often disg
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Annie, would have saved his father
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support for their training and perh
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women had involved themselves in su
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Women Pharmacists. It is reported t
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Chapter 4 The Introduction and Amen
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The Apothecaries Act (1815) confirm
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Early Development of the Medical Pr
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Page 223 and 224: dispensing, however, he was satisfi
Page 225 and 226: The Pharmacy Profession and the Pro
Page 227 and 228: strain became too much. 40 For exam
Page 229 and 230: typical symptoms of strychnine pois
Page 231 and 232: and cocoa. 53 The Arsenic Act had n
Page 233 and 234: Medical Education and Registration.
Page 235 and 236: A Special General Meeting of the Ph
Page 237 and 238: e more difficult to steer through P
Page 239 and 240: Stage in the Lords, Earl Granville
Page 241 and 242: elated bodies, who might consider t
Page 243 and 244: that while it was easy to understan
Page 245 and 246: at the branch shops. This put the p
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Page 249 and 250: the business along those lines. 105
Page 251 and 252: establishments dare not make any re
Page 253 and 254: Companies Association Ltd to safegu
Page 255 and 256: ‗Country Gentleman‘ concerning
Page 257 and 258: chemist and druggist or not. 136 Th
Page 259 and 260: Other issues also influenced the de
Page 261 and 262: commented on them. ‗Country Gentl
Page 263 and 264: chemicals, which were becoming esse
Page 265 and 266: examination. 163 This provision was
Page 267 and 268: Curiously this exploitation did not
Page 269: of medical prescriptions from the a
Page 273 and 274: same time their private patients te
Page 275 and 276: exaggerated because scheme members
Page 277 and 278: etween the government and the frien
Page 279 and 280: Pharmacy Act (1908); all dispensing
Page 281 and 282: himself as ‗A Dispenser of Thirty
Page 283 and 284: decline. The apothecaries‘ assist
Page 285 and 286: them. In contrast, the members of t
Page 287 and 288: Chapter 5 The Decline of the Apothe
Page 289 and 290: occasions between 1909 and 1920, wa
Page 291 and 292: apothecary. 9 This view was also he
Page 293 and 294: will be thrown out of employment
Page 295 and 296: certificate should be increased fro
Page 297 and 298: He was also a Life Member of the Ro
Page 299 and 300: patients joining the scheme. Howeve
Page 301 and 302: longer duration and dealt with a gr
Page 303 and 304: the Privy Council. Mr Trayner and t
Page 305 and 306: to do so. 51 Mr Rowland went on to
Page 307 and 308: druggist, would be able to dispense
Page 309 and 310: their fitness to perform those duti
Page 311 and 312: The pharmacists had also seen the d
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Page 315 and 316: member for the Universities of Edin
Page 317 and 318: matters essential to the Society‘
Page 319 and 320: say that they were very opposed to
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We should not, he thought, be ―bo
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future, but reluctant to relinquish
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to the National Insurance Act. Lloy
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As this handbill stated that apothe
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had been available to a greater or
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amifications of the Act which would
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accepted profession. 132 As we have
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in Parliament ever since 1908 to co
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negotiable condition. It had just b
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Act (1908) created an impasse that
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would be inoperative and had decide
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1916. However, it was recognised in
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have adopted the strategy of doing
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The Society of Apothecaries again h
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prescriptions dispensed by a person
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those who held a legal qualificatio
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development. They had parliamentary
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compounding. She went on to obtain
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edundancy. A search of The Times fr
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Chapter 6 Conclusions The apothecar
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Morant who was Permanent Secretary
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an understanding of their position
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training. Part of this assessment i
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shop proprietor operated pharmacies
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the government would have been boun
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Appendix 1 Appendices Schedules of
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emulsifying agents, and the best me
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e shown to him to their class and s
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volume; the hypothesis of Avagadro;
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To quantitatively determine the tot
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Candidates will be expected to have
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Appendix 3 Table 1: Maximum number
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Subject Margaret Gentle Father’s
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Father’s Occupation and Status -
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Appendix 5 Table 3: Father’s and
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Appendix 6 Substances included in t
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Acts of Parliament Apothecaries Act
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Society of Apothecaries’ Archive
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Box 10, E/4/4/1/2, Letter from 11 M
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Books and Journals Austin, J. Emma
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Secondary Sources Articles Anderson
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Dingwall, H., ‗―General Practic
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Loudon, I.,‗A Doctor‘s Cash Boo
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Watson, K.D., ‗Medical and Chemic
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Cordery, S., British Friendly Socie
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Keevil, J.J., Medicine and the Navy
Page 413 and 414:
Vincent, D., Literacy and Popular C
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