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sclerops) and the otter (Ptenorura brasiliensis) (Villarejo
1979:173±176; Chirif 1980:188). In the thirties
gold and oil were found in the area of Pachitea (Luna
1986:27±28).
In September 1932 a group of Peruvian civilians
took the Colombian town of Leticia by force. A war
with Colombia was the result of this action, which
was supported by the government in Lima. A
consequence of this was the militarization of the
zone, and the forced recruitment of soldiers among
the Amazonian population. In the military camps
people from distant areas of all the Amazonian
territories and other parts of Peru met. Local healers
forced to join the army met each other, and were able
to exchange ideas (Luna 1986:28).
The Second World War was again to bring changes
to the Amazon. In 1941 Japan rapidly advanced
through South East Asia, from where most of the
rubber used in the Western world came. Old Amazonian
jungle tracks were reopened in search of rubber
and jebe fino, attracting immigrants from the rest of
the Peruvian territory. In November 1971 oil was
discovered in the RõÂo Tigre, and a new period of
expansion occurred, bringing about a demographic
explosion (Luna 1986:28).
Iquitos plays a central role in the administrative,
economic and cultural life of north-eastern Peru. It
continues to attract immigrants, not only from jungle
settlements in Amazonian territories, but also from
other areas of the country. With them have come their
traditional beliefs and practices, and this city and its
vicinity are a rich field for gathering ethnological and
folkloristic information (Luna 1986:28).
Despite the modern facË ade of the city of Iquitos,
traditional jungle life with roots in a not so distant
past, has by no means disappeared or even given
ground before the impact of the hitherto coast-basal
industrial society. Although the casual visitor cannot
help but notice just how much twentieth-century
machinery and ways have entered into jungle life (at
least as far as the presence of motor-powered
launches, automobiles, aeroplanes, telephones, movies
and pumps, nonetheless he would find many
traditional beliefs flourishing in this relatively modern
urban setting. Magical beliefs flourish in this situation
of culture change, as Man attempts to achieve mastery
and control over the unknown by special rituals and
ceremonies. Real problems are presented to the
anthropologist who tries to separate the myriad
strands of imported industrial society found among a
small sector of the population from the admixtures of
beliefs held by the destitute poor or middle-income
men and women who attribute illness and misfortune
to witchcraft (Dobkin de Rios 1984:49).
In Iquitos, much of the population, many of them
landless peasants who have migrated from other areas
of the country, live in barriadas or squatter settlements.
Many of these peasants have very little
knowledge of the Amazonian environment (Chirif
1980:189). The price of food and other goods is very
high, compared with those of other cities of Peru. The
price of the transport of agricultural products from the
chacras to the city, either by river or by road, is also
high (Luna 1986:29).
Down river from Iquitos, the RõÂ o Napo, a major
tributary of the Amazon river, is populated by mestizos
or riberenÄos, struggling in transition between the tribal
situation and modern civilization. They live in casarõÂos
or riverine communities on the banks of the river and
make use of river transport for contact with the
modern world, travelling between Iquitos and other
casarõÂos. The distinction between mestizo and riberenÄo
is very complicated. Luna (1991:9) defined
riberenÄos as the descendants of detribalized Amazonian
Indians, the offspring of Indian-European and
Indian-African unions, and the descendants of early
immigrants from different areas of Brazil, Peru, and
other Andean countries, thus comparing well with the
previously discussed definition of mestizo. RiberenÄo
can however also refer to those who dwell along the
riverbanks in riverine communities.
These mestizos or riberenÄos live in huts, mostly with
only a raised floor and roof made out of thatched
palm. Most of these huts lack any walls and furniture,
except for mosquito netting in which to sleep, and an
occasional hammock. The women mainly farm on
their chacras (swidden gardens), with yuca (a starchy
root) and plantain (cooking bananas) as the main
produce. Some will sometimes run a little bodega
(shop) from their house. The men are mostly fishermen
and spend most of their time fishing on the river,
making dugout canoes, or helping in the chacra with
the more strenuous work. Most of the casarõÂos have
an elementary school and soccer field. Soccer is in
most cases the main recreation of riberenÄos.
Most of the work is of a subsistence nature only.
Some riberenÄos do send their produce and fish to
Iquitos by river transport, to sell or trade for necessities
like sugar, soap, tobacco, medicine, and aguardiente
Ð a raw sugarcane rum, distilled by the local
mestizos. Some people will also catch and sell
ornamental fish for aquariums to the many tourists in
Iquitos. Another alarming source of income is the
making of carboÂn (charcoal) for use as fuel by the
many inhabitants of Iquitos. This process entails the
cutting down of hardwood trees, normally done by
the father with a chainsaw, followed by his wife and
children, stacking the logs up and burning it to
produce the carboÂn. This has become a valuable
source of income for many riberenÄos, and is one of the
causes of deforestation on the riverbanks and
throughout the rainforest, which is easily accessed
by water ways.
Because of the struggle between the tribal situation,
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