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4.6 Nuclear Physics Tools and Applications depends on the accuracy with which the inventory of fissile isotopes, fission product yields and β-decay of exotic fission products are calculated or given in nuclear data libraries. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) provides a very useful tool for characterization of actinides (namely uranium and plutonium isotopes) on the level of so called “fingerprints” in quantities significantly lower than by other methods. This makes it possible to identify the origin of such materials even at ultratrace quantities of nuclear materials that may be spread from the declared or, namely, from the non-declared nuclear facilities and illicit trafficking. Moreover, AMS is used in the study of behaviour of actinides in the environment which allows to follow the fate of actinides at the current minute levels that are mainly distributed by the global fall-out from the tests of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere that took place in the fifties and sixties of the last century as well as from the Chernobyl accident. Such research contributes to improving the models of the actinide and fission product behaviour and distribution in case of any accidents in nuclear facilities. This will also contribute to a better reliability of the respective safety studies. Recommendations A large amount of experience exists in the European nations in competences which have direct relevance to security applications. The nuclear sector has a key role to play. In particular, the instruments and techniques developed for fundamental nuclear physics studies offer huge opportunities for knowledge transfer to the security sector. There are many examples of successful projects exploiting technology developed for fundamental nuclear science. However, we need to work harder to ensure that it is recognized that blue-skies research and development spawns novel ideas and technologies. Further mechanisms need to be established that encourage knowledge exchange between the academic nuclear community and industry. The nuclear physics and engineering institutions train the next generation of expertise in applications areas allied to nuclear science. Mechanisms need to be established to protect the investment in training the younger generation through graduated and post graduate programmes. 4.6.6 Applications in Material Science and Other Fundamental Domains Key Questions • How do materials behave under extreme conditions • Can we understand interatomic interactions (e.g. bond formation) at extremely short time scales • Can nuclear physics help to visualize dynamics of ion-beam processes where other techniques fail Key Issues • Understanding and characterization of material properties • Controlled modification and nanostructuring of materials The availability of accelerator facilities, originally developed for the nuclear physics community, has triggered the interest and the applications in a broad range of scientific and industrial areas. Today specifically adapted facilities are routinely using neutrons, x-rays, and ions for material characterization and modification. The following section mainly concentrates on ion beams as showcase of the on-going symbiosis between nuclear physics and material science. Improved irradiation conditions including ion beams of all elements (stable as well as radioactive from hydrogen up to uranium and also cluster projectiles such as C60 fullerenes) and advanced detection techniques have created new opportunities. Nowadays, ions with energies between keV up to hundreds of GeV are used in materials science, nanotechnology, planetary and geosciences, plasma physics, environmental research, and biology, just to name few examples. The applications include material analysis, radioisotopes as probes in solid state physics, testing the radiation hardness of materials in high dose environment, fabrication of nanostructures with microbeams, and targeting living biocells with single swift heavy ions. In particular in Europe, the broad utilization of ion beams in non-nuclear fields has reached high standards and international recognition with excellent scientific and technological perspectives. 188 | Perspectives of Nuclear Physics in Europe – NuPECC Long Range Plan 2010
Ion beam analysis and modification with low-energy beams (< MeV) The bombardment of materials with ions can be used for the characterization of structure properties such as the dimensionality, ordering, occurrence of defects, and for the analysis of electrical, magnetic and optical functionalities. Static as well as dynamical properties can be investigated. Furthermore, those properties can be controlled or modified by ion implantation. Layers can be grown leading to new properties at interfaces and surfaces, hybrid materials can be designed showing e.g. magnetic and superconducting properties, and by modifying the dimensions and the structure order parameters can be coupled. The study objects can be bulk material, thin films, surfaces, interfaces and nanostructures of many different materials (metals, semiconductors, and ceramics, polymers and many other insulators). Two different approaches can be distinguished: • Using radioactive ions: – Through the hyperfine interaction, the radiation emitted in the decay yields information of the direct surrounding of the decaying nucleus. – Dynamical properties, e.g. diffusion processes, are studied by recording the decay of implanted radioactivity – In emission channeling, the direction of the emitted radiation is sensitive to the crystal structure of the sample and to the position of the probe atom in this structure. The depth and lateral dopant profile can be accurately controlled through the ion energy and the implant temperature, giving more flexibility than thermal diffusion. Furthermore, these radioactive methods are extremely sensitive and therefore the dose can be strongly reduced, avoiding structural changes in the material under investigation due to the implantation dose. Both characteristics make these methods well adapted for the ever-decreasing dimensions of devices. Long-living isotopes can be used but the availability of suitable probes is rather limited. Nowadays these studies are mostly performed at ISOL facilities, such as ISOLDE CERN where beams of more than 800 different isotopes are available. • Using stable ions – Nuclear reactions are used for depth profiling or to analyze light element concentrations. – Proton induced x- and γ-ray emission is a nondestructive analysis method providing a detection limit as low as 100 ppm. – Numerous other ion beam implantation and analysis techniques such as Rutherford Backscattering, Figure 5. The combination of two extreme environments such as exposure to energetic ion beams and high pressure is able to significantly change the phase-transition behavior of solids. Samples pressurized between two diamond anvils up to several tens of GPa are irradiated with relativistic heavy ions of sufficient kinetic energy to pass through several mm of diamond. Such projectiles are only available at large accelerators facilities typically used for nuclear physics and deposit an enormous amount of energy into the sample. Simultaneous exposure to pressure and energetic flux may trigger quite different material responses such as long-range amorphization, decomposition into nanocrystals, or enhanced phase stability. The irradiation, for example of the mineral zircon pressurized to 18 GPa leads to the highpressure phase reidite not induced by the applied pressure or energetic ions alone. Such studies are important for the basic understanding of radiation-induced phase changes and are of significance for geochronology and thermochronology, because they can simulate effects of fission fragments in the interior of the Earth. The left figure shows the scheme of ion beam exposure of sample compressed in a diamond anvil cell (DAC) together with the energy deposition of the ions along their path. On the right figure, the Raman spectra of zircon (ZrSiO4) exposed to 5×10 9 ions/cm 2 at (a) ambient pressure and (b) 18 GPa, respectively is displyed. Only the sample irradiated under pressure exhibits specific Raman bands (*) indicating the creation of the high-pressure phase reidite. Perspectives of Nuclear Physics in Europe – NuPECC Long Range Plan 2010 | 189
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Forward Look Perspectives of Nuclea
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Contents Foreword 3 1. Executive Su
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Foreword The goal of this European
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1. Executive Summary 1.1.3 Objectiv
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1. Executive Summary structure and
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1. Executive Summary using slow ant
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1. Executive Summary The role of gl
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1. Executive Summary from the few-b
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1. Executive Summary Advances in nu
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1. Executive Summary and AMS or hig
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2. Recommendations and Roadmap EURI
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3. Research Infrastructures and Net
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4. Scientific Themes 4.1 Hadron Phy
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4.1.2 Basic Properties of Quantum C
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coupling can be applied. A key tool
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opportunity to determine the moduli
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A broad experimental programme has
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4.1.4 Hadron Spectroscopy Recent Ac
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Physics Perspectives There is a mul
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Global Perspective and Efforts In t
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The longest-range parts of these fo
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concentrate their efforts and conti
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4. Scientific Themes 4.2 Phases of
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tion of state would therefore deter
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an increase at the deconfinement te
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can be described with statistical h
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Box 3. Heavy ion fragmentation and
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Figure 7. Isotopic dependence of th
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energies so far did not find indica
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4.2.5 The High-Energy Frontier The
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Figure 10. Elliptic flow parameter
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elevant experimental and analysis r
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the same time being able to precise
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technology), a three-dimensional ar
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4. Scientific Themes 4.3 Nuclear St
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4.3.2 Theoretical Aspects Ab Initio
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the continuum, as done, e.g., in th
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Each of these extensions will open
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Halos, clusters and few-body correl
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Figure 3. Mirror Energy Differences
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Superheavy elements The existence o
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Figure 5. Gamma-ray spectrum of the
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The experimental evidence for the e
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4.3.7 Ground-State Properties Figur
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For nuclear astrophysics applicatio
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A detector array for high-energy ph
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and rejection power of separators.
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4. Scientific Themes 4.4 Nuclear As
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powers many of the objects we obser
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Hydrostatic burning Stars spend the
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Significant uncertainties remain fo
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Page 203 and 204: 5.1 Contributors Hartmut Abele (Wie
Page 205 and 206: 5.3 Acronyms and Abbreviations ADS
Page 207 and 208: Published by the European Science F
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