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4.6 Nuclear Physics Tools and Applications One problem of IBA techniques, in its application to paints, ceramics, or other multi-layer elements, is to disentangle the elementary composition of the different layers. This has been achieved by means of the Confocal PIXE technique, which relies on the accurate detection of X-rays using a policapillary lens before the detector. This procedure increases the X-ray intensity associated to the layers corresponding to the focal plane of the lens, and thus allows determining the depth profile of samples. Confocal PIXE provides the possibility to resolve elemental distribution in separate layers in a complex structure. This technique is used in the Louvre accelerators in paintings, and also in the Franz-Josef Institute at Lublijana in ceramics. Further development of confocal PIXE, with improvements in the depth resolution, can be achieved improving the X-ray optics of the policapillary fibers as well as the resolution of the cameras. Another procedure to obtain information in depth is the use of Differential PIXE. This technique, which has been developed in LABEC (Florence), determines the PIXE spectra for different beam energies. The higher energies penetrate deeper in the pigments, and the corresponding PIXE spectra are more sensitive to the elemental composition of the deeper layers. Higher energy accelerators can also be used for the purpose of studies of the cultural heritage. At INFN- LNS (Catania) two external proton beam lines have been developed in order to perform analysis of the interior of the metals artefacts not perturbed by surface effects (Deep Proton Activation Analysis) using 20 MeV protons, and to perform a global analysis of the artefact using 60 MeV protons. At CNA (Sevilla, Spain) the 18 MeV external proton beam will be used to perform high energy PIXE, allowing in-depth analysis of higher-Z archaeological samples, exploiting the detection of their K X rays, which are produced with reasonably high cross sections at higher beam energy and at the same time not affected – owing to the higher photon energy - by self-absorption effects in the matrix itself. Portable PIXE systems have been developed at LANDIS Laboratory of INFN-LNS, in collaboration with LNHB in CEA/Saclay. The PIXE-α system is based on the use of 1 mCi, 210 Po α source, exciting well light elements but having a low sensitivity for medium atomic number elements. The XPIXE-α system uses both alpha particles and x-rays as exciting beams. The radioactive source is 244 Cm. The new system permits to excite very well both light and medium atomic number elements. Neutron techniques Neutron activation has some advantages over charged particles as an analytic technique, because neutrons can easily penetrate thick layers of sample, and because they present selective resonant absorption for specific elements. Thermal and epithermal beams are available at some European reactors. The ISIS neutron source of the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory produces pulsed neutron beams at different energies. In the last years the neutron beams have been used to perform analysis in the Cultural Heritage field. The aim of the FP6 European programme “Ancient Charm” is to investigate “Neutron Resonant Capture Imaging combined” with “Neutron Resonance Transmission” (NRCI/NRT) as a non-invasive technique for 3D tomographic imaging and its use in cultural heritage research. Figure 6. PIXE-α system ( 210 Po) measuring a gold preparation in a Pontificale from Salerno; the x-ray spectrum features an efficient excitation of light elements. AMS Techniques The by far most-used nuclide in AMS is 14 C, which is extensively used for dating in archeology and cultural heritage, biomedical research and environmental studies. Nowadays, the availability of routine AMS dating provides archaeologists with an efficient tool which allows performing multiple datings of each archaeological site. There are presently about 25 AMS facilities in Europe providing 14 C dating and several facilities are already being installed or are planned in the next few years. 192 | Perspectives of Nuclear Physics in Europe – NuPECC Long Range Plan 2010
In the past decade a new generation of AMS systems has been developed at ETH Zurich, which use multiple ion collisions to destroy molecular interference (as opposed to stripping to high charge states). This can be done at much lower energies (200 kV) resulting in a much simpler setup, reduced the overall size of the system and significantly less cost. These developments have allowed extending the number of laboratories that carry out 14 C dating, and have increased strongly the impact of AMS in archaeology and other fields. Figure 7. The new generation Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) system MICADAS developed at ETH Zurich is based on a 200 kV accelerator and allows routine measurements of 14 C at a very compact facility. This concept of a compact and easy-to-tune AMS system is attractive to many areas where 14 C measurements play a role ranging from routing 14 C dating to biomedical and environmental applications. The excellent stability of the system allows also highestprecision 14 C measurements as it is demonstrated by the dating the parchment and the seal cord of the “Goldene Handfeste” of Berne, Switzerland. This document established the town privileges making it an Imperial Free City and, effectively, an independent state. Highest-precision 14 C measurements can help to solve the ongoing controversy among scholars that the document might be a Bernese forgery from the middle of the 13 th century. Recommendations A recent FP7 project called CHARISMA is devoted to the study and conservation of cultural heritage. Transnational Access is offered to complementary multi-technique advanced facilities available in large scale European installations and medium/small laboratories. Nuclear Techniques fi gure prominently in the project, through the participation of the C2RMF-AGLAE ion beam facility at the Palais du Louvre, the nuclear microprobe facility at ATOMKI-HAS, Debrecen, Hungary and the BNC, Budapest Neutron Centre, that will grant access to a dozen of instrumental neutron end stations. CHARISMA is a good example of the creation of a broad community in order to maximize the impact of the know-how available from the Nuclear Physics on the needs of the Cultural Heritage. A European network of AMS facilities would be useful to transfer technology and training personnel. This is particularly important as more and more of the smaller AMS systems are being installed laboratories without experience in operating an accelerator-based system. Also, it could help to distribute the requests of 14 C dating, optimizing the work load of different facilities. Programmes to fund short time stays of young scientists and technicians in other laboratories, should be encouraged, especially in small accelerator centers. This will promote collaborations and exchange of skills. Outreach material (leaflets, publications) should be produced, to provide information to archaeologists, curators, and other scientists and professionals dedicated to heritage, what they can expect from the use of nuclear techniques. Perspectives of Nuclear Physics in Europe – NuPECC Long Range Plan 2010 | 193
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Forward Look Perspectives of Nuclea
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Contents Foreword 3 1. Executive Su
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Foreword The goal of this European
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1. Executive Summary 1.1.3 Objectiv
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1. Executive Summary structure and
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1. Executive Summary using slow ant
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1. Executive Summary The role of gl
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1. Executive Summary from the few-b
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1. Executive Summary Advances in nu
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1. Executive Summary and AMS or hig
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2. Recommendations and Roadmap EURI
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3. Research Infrastructures and Net
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4. Scientific Themes 4.1 Hadron Phy
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4.1.2 Basic Properties of Quantum C
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coupling can be applied. A key tool
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opportunity to determine the moduli
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A broad experimental programme has
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4.1.4 Hadron Spectroscopy Recent Ac
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Physics Perspectives There is a mul
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Global Perspective and Efforts In t
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The longest-range parts of these fo
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concentrate their efforts and conti
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4. Scientific Themes 4.2 Phases of
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tion of state would therefore deter
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an increase at the deconfinement te
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can be described with statistical h
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Box 3. Heavy ion fragmentation and
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Figure 7. Isotopic dependence of th
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energies so far did not find indica
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4.2.5 The High-Energy Frontier The
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Figure 10. Elliptic flow parameter
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elevant experimental and analysis r
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the same time being able to precise
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technology), a three-dimensional ar
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4. Scientific Themes 4.3 Nuclear St
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4.3.2 Theoretical Aspects Ab Initio
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the continuum, as done, e.g., in th
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Each of these extensions will open
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Halos, clusters and few-body correl
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Figure 3. Mirror Energy Differences
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Superheavy elements The existence o
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Figure 5. Gamma-ray spectrum of the
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The experimental evidence for the e
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4.3.7 Ground-State Properties Figur
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For nuclear astrophysics applicatio
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A detector array for high-energy ph
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and rejection power of separators.
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4. Scientific Themes 4.4 Nuclear As
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powers many of the objects we obser
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Hydrostatic burning Stars spend the
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Significant uncertainties remain fo
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nova ejecta (a few seconds). In thi
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have to be calculated. Current micr
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Page 203 and 204: 5.1 Contributors Hartmut Abele (Wie
Page 205 and 206: 5.3 Acronyms and Abbreviations ADS
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