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Notes to Pages 61–72 267
111. U.S. GAO, supra note 3; see also PATRICIA WALLACE, THE INTERNET IN THE WORK-
PLACE 33 (2004).
PART II. AFTER THE STALL
1. Benkler points out that, since 2002, IBM’s revenues from Linux-related services have
exceeded those for intellectual property transfer, licensing, and royalties. YOCHAI
BENKLER, THE WEALTH OF NETWORKS 47 (2006).
CHAPTER 4. THE GENERATIVE PATTERN
1. See KEVIN BURNS, TCP/IP ANALYSIS AND TROUBLESHOOTING TOOLKIT 5–28 (2003),
available at http://www.wiley.com (search for ISBN “978-0-471-42975-3” and select
“Read Excerpt 1”) (describing the seven-layer OSI protocol model and the four-layer
DOD protocol model, the two foundational network communications protocols).
2. Thus this book’s earlier description, in Chapter One, of four layers: technology, including
physical and protocol; application; content; and social.
3. See infra note 72.
4. Microsoft and Apple have both shown interest in becoming one-stop shops for applications
that run on their respective platforms. Software packages like Office and iLife
suggest the broad market that their respective makers hope to capture. See Apple, iLife,
http://www.apple.com/ilife (last visited May 16, 2007); Microsoft, Office Products,
http://www.microsoft.com/products (select “Office” from left-hand navigation bar)
(last visited May 16, 2007). This all-in-one approach does carry some legal risks: for example,
in a recent antitrust case, Microsoft was accused of putting a thumb on the scale
for its own browser, not by designing its system to exclude new code, but by exploiting
the power of system default options. See United States v. Microsoft Corp., 159 F.R.D.
318, 321 (D.D.C. 1995) (discussing the antitrust investigation against Microsoft and
subsequent charges).
5. See John Markoff, Apple Earnings Bolstered by iPod and Notebook Sales, N.Y. TIMES, July
20, 2006, at C3 (reporting Apple’s 4.6 percent share of the U.S. PC market).
6. See DONALD A. NORMAN, THE INVISIBLE COMPUTER 52 (1998) (arguing that the usefulness
of a tool for a particular task is the key virtue of “information appliances”). Indeed,
“the primary motivation behind the information appliance is clear: simplicity.
Design the tool to fit the task so well that the tool becomes a part of the task ... . The
primary advantages of appliances come from their ability to provide a close fit with the
real needs of their users, combined with the simplicity and elegance that arises from focus
upon a simple activity.” Id.
7. In fact, Norman argues that multifunction tools are not necessarily preferable to tools
featuring fewer functions: “Take another look at the Swiss Army knife, one of those
knives with umpteen blades. Sure, it is fun to look at, sure it is handy if you are off in
the wilderness and it is the only tool you have, but of all the umpteen things it does,
none of them are done particularly well.” Id. at 71.
8. Historically, the adjective “plastic” has meant “moldable” or “sculptable,” from Greek;