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vi R. GROSS AND A. MARX CONTENTS4.4.4 Voltmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1974.4.5 Radiofrequency Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1984.5 Applications of SQUIDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2004.5.1 Biomagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2004.5.2 Nondestructive Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2044.5.3 SQUID Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2064.5.4 Gravity Wave Antennas and Gravity Gradiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2084.5.5 Geophysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2105 Digital Electronics 2155.1 Superconductivity and Digital Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2165.1.1 Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2175.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Josephson Switching Devices . . . . . . . . . 2195.2 Voltage State Josephson Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2225.2.1 Operation Principle and Switching Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2225.2.2 Power Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2255.2.3 Switching Dynamics, Global Clock and Punchthrough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2265.2.4 Josephson Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2285.2.5 Memory Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2345.2.6 Microprocessors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2365.2.7 Problems of Josephson Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2375.3 RSFQ Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2395.3.1 Basic Components of RSFQ Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2415.3.2 Information in RSFQ Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2465.3.3 Basic Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2475.3.4 Timing and Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2495.3.5 Maximum Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2495.3.6 Power Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2505.3.7 Prospects of RSFQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2505.3.8 Fabrication Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2535.3.9 RSFQ Roadmap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2545.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2555.4.1 Additional Topic:Foundations of ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2565.4.2 The Comparator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2615.4.3 The Aperture Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2635.4.4 Different Types of ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264© Walther-Meißner-Institut
CONTENTS APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITY vii6 The Josephson Voltage Standard 2696.1 Voltage Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2706.1.1 Standard Cells and Electrical Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2706.1.2 Quantum Standards for Electrical Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2716.2 The Josephson Voltage Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2746.2.1 Underlying Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2746.2.2 Development of the Josephson Voltage Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2746.2.3 Junction and Circuit Parameters for Series Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2796.3 Programmable Josephson Voltage Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2816.3.1 Pulse Driven Josephson Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2837 Superconducting Photon and Particle Detectors 2857.1 Superconducting Microwave Detectors: Heterodyne Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2867.1.1 Noise Equivalent Power and Noise Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2867.1.2 Operation Principle of Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2877.1.3 Noise Temperature of Heterodyne Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2907.1.4 SIS Quasiparticle Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2927.1.5 Josephson Mixers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2967.2 Superconducting Microwave Detectors: Direct Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2977.2.1 NEP of Direct Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2987.3 Thermal Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3007.3.1 Principle of Thermal Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3007.3.2 Bolometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3027.3.3 Antenna-Coupled Microbolometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3077.4 Superconducting Particle and Single Photon Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3147.4.1 Thermal Photon and Particle Detectors: Microcalorimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . 3147.4.2 Superconducting Tunnel Junction Photon and Particle Detectors . . . . . . . . . 3187.5 Other Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3288 Microwave Applications 3298.1 High Frequency Properties of Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3308.1.1 The Two-Fluid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3308.1.2 The Surface Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3338.2 Superconducting Resonators and Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3368.3 Superconducting Microwave Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3372005
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