ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizational Culture and Leadership, 3rd Edition

138 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND LEADERSHIP(2001, first published 1980), Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars(1993, 2000) and others, but I have also added to and elaborated onthem, based on my own experience in different countries. The dimensionsI will review are shown in Exhibit 7.1.These deeper dimensions clearly will influence how externaladaptation and internal integration issues are handled; thus, theyrelate directly to those previously discussed dimensions. For exam-Exhibit 7.1. Deeper Dimensions Around WhichShared Basic Underlying Assumptions Form.• The Nature of Reality and Truth. The shared assumptions that define whatis real and what is not, what is a fact in the physical realm and the socialrealm, how truth is ultimately to be determined, and whether truth isrevealed or discovered.• The Nature of Time. The shared assumptions that define the basic conceptof time in the group, how time is defined and measured, how many kindsof time there are, and the importance of time in the culture.• The Nature of Space. The shared assumptions about space and its distribution,how space is allocated, the symbolic meaning of space around theperson, and the role of space in defining aspects of relationships such asdegree of intimacy or definitions of privacy.• The Nature of Human Nature. The shared assumptions that define whatit means to be human and what human attributes are considered intrinsicor ultimate. Is human nature good, evil, or neutral? Are human beingsperfectible or not?• The Nature of Human Activity. The shared assumptions that define whatis the right thing for human beings to do in relating to their environmenton the basis of the above assumptions about reality and the nature ofhuman nature. In one’s basic orientation to life, what is the appropriatelevel of activity or passivity? At the organizational level, what is therelationship of the organization to its environment?• The Nature of Human Relationships. The shared assumptions that definewhat is ultimately the right way for people to relate to each other, todistribute power and love. Is life cooperative or competitive; individualistic,group-collaborative, or communal? What is the appropriatepsychological contract between employers and employees? Is authorityultimately based on traditional lineal authority, moral consensus, law, orcharisma? What are the basic assumptions about how conflict should beresolved and how decisions should be made?