ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizational Culture and Leadership, 3rd Edition

196 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND LEADERSHIPclan is a high-sociability, high-solidarity networked culture? No,because a clan is inwardly focused, whereas a networked culture is,by implication, externally focused. And the communal and fragmentedcultures clearly do not map onto hierarchy or adhocracy. Sowe are left with a dilemma that, in my view, derives from trying tobuild simple typologies in the first place. In order to determinewhich typology works better, we would have to assess a given organizationwith a much more open-ended, multidimensional approachof the sort I will describe in the next chapter.Intraorganizational TypologiesThe most obvious of intraorganizational typologies is the traditionaldistinction between management and labor or salaried and hourly.In every organization one can distinguish some version of this typology—thosewho run the place and those who do the daily work.There is no doubt that where these groups are more or less stable anddevelop a history of their own, they will become cultural units. Thebest example is the use of the concept of “command and control” asa type of organization.Historically, an important element of such culture formationhas been opposition—the deep assumption in both cultures thatthe conflict between them is intrinsic and inevitable. In a laborunion a strong tradition may arise and get passed on from generationto generation that “management will always exploit you andscrew you if it can,” and within management the assumption maybe passed on that “labor will always do as little as possible”—whatMcGregor identified as Theory X. This tendency leads to characterizingwhole organizations as Theory X or Theory Y.However, if one observes organizations more closely, one willfind evidence for another kind of typology based on a combinationof the task to be done and the occupational reference groups involved(Schein, 1996a). One can think of these as generic subculturesthat every group or organization needs in order to survive. Theproblem is that in many organizations these subcultures conflict