ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE Organizational Culture and Leadership, 3rd Edition

2THE LEVELS OF CULTUREThe purpose of this chapter is to show that culture can be analyzedat several different levels, with the term level meaning the degree towhich the cultural phenomenon is visible to the observer. Some ofthe confusion surrounding the definition of what culture really isresults from not differentiating the levels at which it manifests itself.These levels range from the very tangible overt manifestations thatone can see and feel to the deeply embedded, unconscious, basicassumptions that I am defining as the essence of culture. In betweenthese layers are various espoused beliefs, values, norms, and rules ofbehavior that members of the culture use as a way of depicting theculture to themselves and others.Many other culture researchers prefer the term basic values todescribe the concept of the deepest levels. I prefer basic assumptionsbecause these tend to be taken for granted by group members andare treated as nonnegotiable. Values are open to discussion and peoplecan agree to disagree about them. Basic assumptions are sotaken for granted that someone who does not hold them is viewedas a “foreigner” or as “crazy” and is automatically dismissed.The major levels of cultural analysis are shown in Figure 2.1.ArtifactsAt the surface is the level of artifacts, which includes all the phenomenathat one sees, hears, and feels when one encounters a newgroup with an unfamiliar culture. Artifacts include the visibleproducts of the group, such as the architecture of its physical25