Electronic Proceedings - United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs

particularly the PTOs 30 . Voice also has a particular significance for low income andrural residents. Universal service requirements apply primarily to voice services 31 .Therefore, it can be appropriate to regulate voice services differently from dataservices.As already mentioned 32 , simple carriage of a data message over a network is distinctfrom the provision of additional services, adding value to the basic data message.Value-added services range from storage, to the combination of the original messagewith other data.The distinction between voice, data and value-added services does not apply uniquelyto satellite services. However, it has an impact on the treatment of one-way and twowayservices.3.3 One-way and Two-way ServicesA distinct advantage of satellite communications systems over terrestrial systems isthe capability to broadcast the same message over the whole of the satellite footprintto multiple earth stations, cheaply and efficiently. Efficiencies that can be achievedthrough such broadcast services are generally deemed to be economically desirableand are encouraged by many States. These services include up-dating inventories,reporting sales revenues, circulating news and messages to staff and installing newtitles in jukeboxes 33 .To take advantage of these benefits, many jurisdictions have introduced class licencesfor receive-only earth stations. The class licences require that the earth stationsconform to relevant technical standards and that they are used for permissiblepurposes.Two-way services have a greater potential for replacing terrestrial equivalents 34 .Additional considerations arise if the satellite system is non-domestic. In that event,part of the revenue from the provision of services will go to entities outside the Statein which the service is provided, with a loss of both foreign exchange and tax revenue.3031323334In the UK BT provides the vast majority of last mile connections, particularly in theresidential market.In the US there has been argument for the application of universal service principles toInternet access. Not surprisingly, this has been largely motivated by commercial interests andis in part a product of the manner of application of universal service requirements in the US.See Paragraph 3.Closed user groups and communications for the internal purposes of an entity are subject tolittle regulation. These activities are diverse and encouraged by governments as theycontribute to business efficiency.See Paragraphs 3.1 and 3.2.317