Diane Larsen-Freeman

156 Content-based, Task-based, and Participato ry A pproaches
B Apply what you have understood about content-based, task-based,
and participatory approaches:
How arc process writing and jou rna l-keep ing consistent with whole
language principles? Can you think of any other writing techniques
that follow from the principles?
2 Draw up a list of projects that might he undertaken by your students.
Remember that the project is not designed to suit particular linguistic
poi nts. Also remem ber the fact that students wa nt [0 be involved is
cr ucial. On you r list could be something like publishing a school
newspaper as descr ibed in this chapter. Other ideas might be planning
a field tri p, conducting a survey, or researching a topi c such as an
enviro nmental concern . If you do decide to have your student s go
ahea d and work on a pro ject, you may wish to consult fried-Booth
(1986).
3 Think of one example to fit each of Pmbhu's thr ee types of task : infor ­
mati on-gap, opinion-gap, and reasonin g-gap . Tr y them om in your
classroom and see what yOll canlearn.
4 Speak with your students about what is happening in their lives. Are
there themes that emerge wh ich you can plan lessons aro und ?
REFERENCES AND ADDITIDNAL RESOURCES
GeneraL
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Oxford University Press.
Content-based
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Heinle.
Can roni-Harvcy, Gina. 1987. Content-area Language Instruction:
Approdches and Strategies. Reading. MA: Addison-Wesley.
Cra nda ll, JoAnn. (cd.). 1987. ESL th rough Content-area Instruction.
Englewoo d Cliffs, NJ: Prentice 11;\11 Regen ts.
Mohan. Bernard. 1986. Lmguage and Content. Reading, M A: Add ison­
Wesley.
O ller,John. 1993. Methods that \Vork . (2nd edn.) Boston, M A: Heinle &
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Content-based. Task-based, and Participatory Approaches 157
Snow, Marguerit e Ann . 1991 . 'Content-based instr uction: A method
wit h many faces' in Alatis, J. E. (ed.). Georgetown University Ro und
Table Ott Languages and Linguistics, Washington. DC: Georgetown
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Sno w. Margu erite Ann and Donna Brinton . 1997. The Content-based
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Wesche, Marjorie. 1993. 'Disci pline-based approaches to language
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Whole language
Edc1sky, Carole, Bess Altwerger, and Barbara Flores. 199 1. Wh ole
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Freeman. Yvonne and David Freeman. 1992. Wh ole Language for
Second Language Learners. Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann.
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Riggs. Pat. 1991. 'Whole language in TESOL.' TESOL Quarterly 25/3:
52 1-4 2.
Staton,Jana, Roger Shuy,Joy Krccfr Peyton. and Lcslce Reed. 1988. Dialogne
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Zamcl, Vivian. 1982 . 'Writing: The process of discovering meaning:
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Task-based
Breen, Michael and Christo pher Candlin. 1980. 'The essentials of communicative
curriculum in language teaching," Applied Linguistics 1/2:
89- 112.
Candlin, Christopher and D. F. M urphy (eds.). 1987. Language Learning
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Crookes, Graha m and Sue Gass (eds.). 1993. Tasks in a l'edagogical Context.
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Long. Michael and Graham Crookes. 1993. 'Units of analysis in syllabus