A COMPENDIUM OF SCALES for use in the SCHOLARSHIP OF TEACHING AND LEARNING

either unnecessary or is referenced solely to an external agent of authority. At later stages, the
strength of various types of evidence (e.g., anecdotes, scientific, historical, etc.) and criteria
(e.g., meaningfulness, utility, consistence, etc.) are used to validate an opinion in the process of
justification. Unlike Kuhn’s model, King and Kitchener (1994) put an emphasis on
epistemological growth of adolescence to adulthood in their model. Though without clear age
specification, it is believed that starting the period of adolescence allows learners to grasp the
importance to use evidence in supporting their beliefs about the world, and that the various
means of justification are acquired inclinations that can be cultivated through learning and
experience. Thus, it is loosely assumed for those with higher education backgrounds to operate
at more advanced epistemological stages.
Table 2
Stage of Reflective Judgment in Epistemological Understanding
Stage Concept of Knowledge Role of Justification
Knowledge is first viewed as based on
personal experience, and later as obtained
from external authorities.
Justification is either unnecessary
or is made with reference to an
authority.
Prereflective
Quasireflective
Reflective
Any personal claim supported by different
reasons can be knowledge; it is a matter of
a person’s own perspective.
Knowledge is constructed and supported by
reasons and evidence, with an aim of
arriving at a well-informed and complete
understanding of an issue.
Relying first on subjective or
idiosyncratic reasons then to using
a variety of evidence
Different perspectives and sources
of evidence are compared and
evaluated for consistency,
meaningfulness and coherence.
The Multiple-Facet Approach of Epistemological Beliefs
Epistemological beliefs are also conceptualized as a set of personal theories about various
facets of knowledge. Beginning with Schommer’s (1990) work, five facets were identified. These
include simple knowledge (knowledge as isolated versus interrelated), certain knowledge
(knowledge as static versus evolving), omniscient authority (the source of knowledge as passed
down from higher agent versus the source of knowledge as challengeable), quick learning
(learning takes place quickly or not at all versus learning takes place gradually), and innate
ability (intellectual ability as fixed entity versus ability as acquired). The simplicity and certainty
facets pertain to beliefs about structure and form of knowledge; whereas, omniscient authority
and quick learning concern the origin of knowledge and process of knowing.
Based on Schommer’s (1990) work, Hofer (2000) later proposed a refined four-factor model of
epistemological beliefs. They include certainty of knowledge, simplicity of knowledge, source of
knowledge and justification for knowing (justification based on personal opinion, authority, or
the use of multiple evidences). In this refined version, Hofer integrated King and Kitchener’s
(1994) emphasis of justification into Schommer’s original model and put forth the factor
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